describe the sequence of events that occurs during a primary immune response with reference to the roles of: macrophages, B-lymphocytes, including plasma cells, T-lymphocytes, limited to T-helper cells and T-killer cells
explain that transpiration involves the evaporation of water from the internal surfaces of leaves followed by diffusion of water vapour to the atmosphere
Transport in Plants – Cambridge AS & A‑Level Biology (Topic 7)
outline glycolysis as phosphorylation of glucose and the subsequent splitting of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (6C) into two triose phosphate molecules (3C), which are then further oxidised to pyruvate (3C), with the production of ATP and reduced NAD
Respiration – Glycolysis and the Aerobic Pathway (Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700)
explain why populations and species can become extinct as a result of: climate change, competition, hunting by humans, degradation and loss of habitats
describe the types of interaction that hold protein molecules in shape: hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, covalent bonding, including disulfide bonds
Proteins – Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700)
explain that biodiversity can be assessed at different levels, including: the number and range of different ecosystems and habitats, the number of species and their relative abundance, the genetic variation within each species
outline the following examples of selective breeding: the introduction of disease resistance to varieties of wheat and rice, inbreeding and hybridisation to produce vigorous, uniform varieties of maize, improving the milk yield of dairy cattle
Selection & Evolution – Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700)
investigate the progress of enzyme-catalysed reactions by measuring rates of formation of products using catalase and rates of disappearance of substrate using amylase
Mode of Action of Enzymes – Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700)
investigate the difference in activity between an enzyme immobilised in alginate and the same enzyme free in solution, and state the advantages of using immobilised enzymes
Investigating Enzyme Activity: Immobilised in Alginate vs. Free in Solution
explain the role of the dominant allele, Le, that codes for a functional enzyme in the gibberellin synthesis pathway, and the recessive allele, le, that codes for a non-functional enzyme
Understanding the Role of the Le/le Alleles in Gibberellin Synthesis
state that the mammalian circulatory system is a closed double circulation consisting of a heart, blood and blood vessels including arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins
Topic 8 – Transport in Mammals: The Circulatory System
describe and carry out investigations using redox indicators, including DCPIP and methylene blue, and a suspension of chloroplasts to determine the effects of light intensity and light wavelength on the rate of photosynthesis
Investigation of Limiting Factors in Photosynthesis (Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level 9700 – Topic 13.2)
explain the relationship between genes, proteins and phenotype with respect to the: TYR gene, tyrosinase and albinism, HBB gene, haemoglobin and sickle cell anaemia, F8 gene, factor VIII and haemophilia, HTT gene, huntingtin and Huntington’s disease
use Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s linear correlation to analyse the relationships between two variables, including how biotic and abiotic factors affect the distribution and abundance of species (the formulae for these correlations will b
Biodiversity & Correlation – Using Spearman’s ρ and Pearson’s r in Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level Biology (9700)
investigate the effects of immersing plant tissues in solutions of different water potentials, using the results to estimate the water potential of the tissues
describe the distribution in the gas exchange system of cartilage, ciliated epithelium, goblet cells, squamous epithelium of alveoli, smooth muscle and capillaries
Gas‑Exchange System (Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level Biology 9700 – Topic 9)
explain why the energy yield from respiration in aerobic conditions is much greater than the energy yield from respiration in anaerobic conditions (a detailed account of the total yield of ATP from the aerobic respiration of glucose is not expected)
Respiration – Energy Yield in Aerobic vs Anaerobic Conditions
state that Archaea and Bacteria are prokaryotes and that there are differences between them, limited to differences in membrane lipids, ribosomal RNA and composition of cell walls
illustrate the principle that surface area to volume ratios decrease with increasing size by calculating surface areas and volumes of simple 3-D shapes (as shown in the Mathematical requirements)
Movement into and out of Cells – Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level (9700)
explain that energy transferred as ATP and reduced NADP from the light-dependent stage is used during the light-independent stage (Calvin cycle) of photosynthesis to produce complex organic molecules
outline the main stages in the process of cell signalling leading to specific responses: secretion of specific chemicals (ligands) from cells, transport of ligands to target cells, binding of ligands to cell surface receptors on target cells
explain that genetic engineering is the deliberate manipulation of genetic material to modify specific characteristics of an organism and that this may involve transferring a gene into an organism so that the gene is expressed
Principles of Genetic Technology (Cambridge 9700 – Topic 19)
explain that genes to be transferred into an organism may be: extracted from the DNA of a donor organism, synthesised from the mRNA of a donor organism, synthesised chemically from nucleotides
Principles of Genetic Technology (Cambridge AS & A Level – Topic 19)
describe the rapid response of the Venus fly trap to stimulation of hairs on the lobes of modified leaves and explain how the closure of the trap is achieved
Control and Coordination in Plants – Venus fly‑trap (Dionaea muscipula)
describe how the information in DNA is used during transcription and translation to construct polypeptides, including the roles of: RNA polymerase, messenger RNA (mRNA), codons, transfer RNA (tRNA), anticodons, ribosomes
6.2 Protein synthesis – how DNA information is used to build polypeptides
describe and carry out a semi-quantitative Benedict’s test on a reducing sugar solution by standardising the test and using the results (time to first colour change or comparison to colour standards) to estimate the concentration
Testing for Biological Molecules – Semi‑quantitative Benedict’s Test (and related routine tests)
describe and carry out investigations, using simple respirometers, to determine the RQ of germinating seeds or small invertebrates (e.g. blowfly larvae)
Energy – Respiration, Respiratory Quotient (RQ) and Simple Respirometry
describe the behaviour of chromosomes in plant and animal cells during meiosis and the associated behaviour of the nuclear envelope, the cell surface membrane and the spindle (names of the main stages of meiosis, but not the sub-divisions of prophase
Passage of Information from Parents to Offspring – Meiosis
describe and use suitable methods to assess the distribution and abundance of organisms in an area, limited to frame quadrats, line transects, belt transects and mark-release-recapture using the Lincoln index (the formula for the Lincoln index will b
Biology – Biodiversity: Assessing Distribution and Abundance (Cambridge AS & A Level 9700, Topic 18)
explain how hydrogen bonding of water molecules is involved with movement of water in the xylem by cohesion-tension in transpiration pull and by adhesion to cellulose in cell walls
Transport Mechanisms – Role of Hydrogen Bonding in Water Movement
describe and explain the formation of urine in the nephron, limited to: the formation of glomerular filtrate by ultrafiltration in the Bowman’s capsule, selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule
Homeostasis in Mammals – Urine Formation in the Nephron
describe the molecular structure of the polysaccharide cellulose and outline how the arrangement of cellulose molecules contributes to the function of plant cell walls
state that all viruses are non-cellular structures with a nucleic acid core (either DNA or RNA) and a capsid made of protein, and that some viruses have an outer envelope made of phospholipids
state that triglycerides are non-polar hydrophobic molecules and describe the molecular structure of triglycerides with reference to fatty acids (saturated and unsaturated), glycerol and the formation of ester bonds
Cambridge AS & A Level Biology (9700) – Biological Molecules
explain the principles of operation of test strips and biosensors for measuring the concentration of glucose in blood and urine, with reference to glucose oxidase and peroxidase enzymes
Homeostasis & Glucose Regulation – Measuring Glucose in Blood and Urine
explain the movement of water between cells and solutions in terms of water potential and explain the different effects of the movement of water on plant cells and animal cells (knowledge of solute potential and pressure potential is not expected)
explain how rice is adapted to grow with its roots submerged in water, limited to the development of aerenchyma in roots, ethanol fermentation in roots and faster growth of stems
Respiration in Rice (Oryza sativa) under Submerged Conditions
explain the importance of mitosis in the production of genetically identical daughter cells during: growth of multicellular organisms, replacement of damaged or dead cells, repair of tissues by cell replacement, asexual reproduction
state that water is the main component of blood and tissue fluid and relate the properties of water to its role in transport in mammals, limited to solvent action and high specific heat capacity
outline key structural features of a prokaryotic cell as found in a typical bacterium, including: unicellular, generally 1–5 µm diameter, peptidoglycan cell walls, circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, absence of organelles surrounded by double membranes
Cells as the Basic Units of Living Organisms (Cambridge 9700 – Topic 1)
describe the cardiac cycle, with reference to the relationship between blood pressure changes during systole and diastole and the opening and closing of valves
explain that during photophosphorylation: energetic electrons release energy as they pass through the electron transport chain (details of carriers are not expected), the released energy is used to transfer protons across the thylakoid membrane, prot
Photosynthesis as an Energy‑Transfer Process (Cambridge 9700 A‑Level)
outline the Krebs cycle, explaining that oxaloacetate (4C) acts as an acceptor of the 2C fragment from acetyl coenzyme A to form citrate (6C), which is converted back to oxaloacetate in a series of small steps
outline the three main stages of the Calvin cycle: rubisco catalyses the fixation of carbon dioxide by combination with a molecule of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), a 5C compound, to yield two molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP), a 3C compound, GP
explain how gibberellin activates genes by causing the breakdown of DELLA protein repressors, which normally inhibit factors that promote transcription
Gene Control – Gibberellin (GA) Activation of Transcription
describe the principle of the universal genetic code in which different triplets of DNA bases either code for specific amino acids or correspond to start and stop codons
describe the principles of cell signalling using the example of the control of blood glucose concentration by glucagon, limited to: binding of hormone to cell surface receptor causing conformational change, activation of G-protein leading to stimulat
Homeostasis in Mammals – Control of Blood Glucose by Glucagon
state that Calvin cycle intermediates are used to produce other molecules, limited to GP to produce some amino acids and TP to produce carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids
Photosynthesis – Energy Transfer Process (Cambridge A‑Level Biology 9700)
describe the functions of the main blood vessels of the pulmonary and systemic circulations, limited to pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein, aorta and vena cava
describe the roles of phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, proteins and glycoproteins in cell surface membranes, with reference to stability, fluidity, permeability, transport (carrier proteins and channel proteins), cell signalling (cell surface
outline the role in conservation of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
Conservation – Biodiversity, Threats and International Responses
state that the respiratory quotient (RQ) is the ratio of the number of molecules of carbon dioxide produced to the number of molecules of oxygen taken in, as a result of respiration
explain that, in eukaryotes, the RNA molecule formed following transcription (primary transcript) is modified by the removal of non-coding sequences (introns) and the joining together of coding sequences (exons) to form mRNA
Protein Synthesis – RNA Processing in Eukaryotes (Cambridge 9700 – Topic 6.2)
explain, with examples, that phenotypic variation is due to genetic factors or environmental factors or a combination of genetic and environmental factors
Variation – Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700)
describe the structure of the human kidney, limited to: fibrous capsule, cortex, medulla, renal pelvis, ureter, branches of the renal artery and renal vein
explain that crossing over and random orientation (independent assortment) of pairs of homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids during meiosis produces genetically different gametes
describe and explain changes to the membrane potential of neurones, including: how the resting potential is maintained, the events that occur during an action potential, how the resting potential is restored during the refractory period
Control and Coordination in Mammals – Neuronal Membrane Potential
state that transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA and are involved in the control of gene expression in eukaryotes by decreasing or increasing the rate of transcription
describe the role of red blood cells in transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide with reference to the roles of: haemoglobin, carbonic anhydrase, the formation of haemoglobinic acid, the formation of carbaminohaemoglobin
Cambridge AS & A‑Level Biology (9700) – Topic 8.2 Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
explain that in non-cyclic photophosphorylation: photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) are both involved, photoactivation of chlorophyll occurs, the oxygen-evolving complex catalyses the photolysis of water, ATP and reduced NADP are synthesis
Photosynthesis – Non‑Cyclic Photophosphorylation (Cambridge AS & A Level)
describe the classification of organisms in the Eukarya domain into the taxonomic hierarchy of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species
state that enzymes are globular proteins that catalyse reactions inside cells (intracellular enzymes) or are secreted to catalyse reactions outside cells (extracellular enzymes)
explain how speciation may occur as a result of genetic isolation by: geographical separation (allopatric speciation), ecological and behavioural separation (sympatric speciation)
Evolution – Speciation through Genetic Isolation (Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level Biology 9700)
outline the benefits of using databases that provide information about nucleotide sequences of genes and genomes, and amino acid sequences of proteins and protein structures
Sequence Databases and Genetic Technology (Cambridge A‑Level)
interpret photomicrographs, diagrams and microscope slides of cells in different stages of the mitotic cell cycle and identify the main stages of mitosis
Interpretation of Photomicrographs, Diagrams and Microscope Slides of Cells in the Mitotic Cycle
investigate and explain the effects of the following factors on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions: temperature, pH (using buffer solutions), enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, inhibitor concentration
use the chi-squared test to test the significance of differences between observed and expected results (the formula for the chi-squared test will be provided, as shown in the Mathematical requirements)
Using the χ² Test to Evaluate Phenotypic Ratios and Detect Selection
outline the roles of zoos, botanic gardens, conserved areas (including national parks and marine parks), ‘frozen zoos’ and seed banks, in the conservation of endangered species
Conservation of Endangered Species – Cambridge AS & A Level Biology (9700)
describe and use chromatography to separate and identify chloroplast pigments (reference should be made to Rf values in identification of chloroplast pigments)
Photosynthesis – Energy Transfer Process (Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700)
recognise organelles and other cell structures found in eukaryotic cells and outline their structures and functions, limited to: cell surface membrane, nucleus, nuclear envelope and nucleolus, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum
explain the roles of restriction endonucleases, DNA ligase, plasmids, DNA polymerase and reverse transcriptase in the transfer of a gene into an organism
Principles of Genetic Technology (Cambridge International AS & A Level – Topic 19)
explain that during oxidative phosphorylation: hydrogen atoms split into protons and energetic electrons, energetic electrons release energy as they pass through the electron transport chain (details of carriers are not expected), the released energy
Oxidative Phosphorylation (Stage 5 of Aerobic Respiration)
recognise cartilage, ciliated epithelium, goblet cells, squamous epithelium of alveoli, smooth muscle and capillaries in microscope slides, photomicrographs and electron micrographs
Identify, in diagrams, photomicrographs and electron micrographs, the parts of a nephron and its associated blood vessels and structures, limited to: glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, c
Topic 14 – Homeostasis (Kidney/Nephron) – Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700)
outline the need for energy in living organisms, as illustrated by active transport, movement and anabolic reactions, such as those occurring in DNA replication and protein synthesis
Energy in Living Organisms – Cambridge AS & A Level Biology (9700)
use the Hardy–Weinberg principle to calculate allele and genotype frequencies in populations and state the conditions when this principle can be applied (the two equations for the Hardy–Weinberg principle will be provided, as shown in the Mathematica
explain that natural selection occurs because populations have the capacity to produce many offspring that compete for resources; in the ‘struggle for existence’, individuals that are best adapted are most likely to survive to reproduce and pass on t
Natural and Artificial Selection (Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 – Topic 17)
State where each of the four stages in aerobic respiration occurs in eukaryotic cells: glycolysis in the cytoplasm, link reaction in the mitochondrial matrix, Krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix, oxidative phosphorylation on the inner membrane of
explain that a gene mutation is a result of substitution or deletion or insertion of nucleotides in DNA and outline how each of these types of mutation may affect the polypeptide produced
Protein Synthesis – Gene Mutations (Cambridge 9700, Topic 6.2)
state that within a chloroplast, the thylakoids (thylakoid membranes and thylakoid spaces), which occur in stacks called grana, are the site of the light-dependent stage and the stroma is the site of the light-independent stage
describe the sequence of events that results in an action potential in a sensory neurone, using a chemoreceptor cell in a human taste bud as an example
Control and Coordination in Mammals – Action Potential in a Taste Bud
describe and carry out the Benedict’s test for reducing sugars, the iodine test for starch, the emulsion test for lipids and the biuret test for proteins
Testing for Biological Molecules – Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level (9700) 2.1
explain how negative feedback control mechanisms regulate blood glucose concentration, with reference to the effects of insulin on muscle cells and liver cells and the effect of glucagon on liver cells
Control & Coordination – Homeostasis of Blood Glucose (Cambridge 9700/9702)
discuss the biological, social and economic factors that need to be considered in the prevention and control of cholera, malaria, TB and HIV (details of the life cycle of the malarial parasite are not expected)
Infectious Diseases – Prevention and Control (Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 – Topic 10)
interpret and construct genetic diagrams, including Punnett squares, to explain and predict the results of dihybrid crosses that involve autosomal linkage and epistasis (knowledge of the expected ratios for different types of epistasis is not expecte
Cambridge International AS & A‑Level Biology (9700) – Revised Syllabus Notes
describe the semi-conservative replication of DNA during the S phase of the cell cycle, including: the roles of DNA polymerase and DNA ligase (knowledge of other enzymes in DNA replication in cells and different types of DNA polymerase is not expecte
Cambridge International AS & A‑Level Biology 9700 – Complete Revision Notes
describe and carry out investigations using whole plants, including aquatic plants, to determine the effects of light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis – Investigation of Limiting Factors (Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 – Topic 13.2)
describe the transport of water from the soil to the xylem through the: apoplast pathway, including reference to lignin and cellulose, symplast pathway, including reference to the endodermis, Casparian strip and suberin
Transport of Water from Soil to the Xylem (Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 – Topic 7)
use Simpson’s index of diversity (D) to calculate the biodiversity of an area, and state the significance of different values of D (the formula for Simpson’s index of diversity will be provided, as shown in the Mathematical requirements)
Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) – Cambridge AS & A‑Level Biology (Topic 18)
explain the mode of action of enzymes in terms of an active site, enzyme–substrate complex, lowering of activation energy and enzyme specificity, including the lock-and-key hypothesis and the induced-fit hypothesis
Mode of Action of Enzymes (Cambridge AS & A‑Level Biology 9700)
describe the structure and function of a sensory neurone and a motor neurone and state that intermediate neurones connect sensory neurones and motor neurones
Control and Coordination in Mammals – Sensory, Interneurone and Motor Neurones
explain that stomata respond to changes in environmental conditions by opening and closing and that regulation of stomatal aperture balances the need for carbon dioxide uptake by diffusion with the need to minimise water loss by transpiration
describe the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure with reference to the hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions that account for the formation of the phospholipid bilayer and the arrangement of proteins
describe the molecular structure of phospholipids with reference to their hydrophilic (polar) phosphate heads and hydrophobic (non-polar) fatty acid tails
describe the molecular structure of the polysaccharides starch (amylose and amylopectin) and glycogen and relate their structures to their functions in living organisms
recognise trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli in microscope slides, photomicrographs and electron micrographs and make plan diagrams of transverse sections of the walls of the trachea and bronchus
The Gas‑Exchange System (Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level 9700 – Topic 9)
explain how hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules and relate the properties of water to its roles in living organisms, limited to solvent action, high specific heat capacity and latent heat of vaporisation
explain the principles of homeostasis in terms of internal and external stimuli, receptors, coordination systems (nervous system and endocrine system), effectors (muscles and glands) and negative feedback
Homeostasis in Mammals – Cambridge A‑Level Biology 9700 (Topic 14)
explain that genetic engineering may help to solve the global demand for food by improving the quality and productivity of farmed animals and crop plants, using the examples of GM salmon, herbicide resistance in soybean and insect resistance in cotto
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) – Using Biotechnology to Meet the Global Food Challenge
state that the strand of a DNA molecule that is used in transcription is called the transcribed or template strand and that the other strand is called the non-transcribed strand
Protein Synthesis – Key Concepts (Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level 9700)
explain that the maximum rate of reaction (Vmax) is used to derive the Michaelis–Menten constant (Km), which is used to compare the affinity of different enzymes for their substrates
use Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s linear correlation to analyse the relationships between two variables, including how biotic and abiotic factors affect the distribution and abundance of species (the formulae for these correlations will b
Using Correlation Analysis in Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700)
explain that in non-cyclic photophosphorylation: photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) are both involved, photoactivation of chlorophyll occurs, the oxygen-evolving complex catalyses the photolysis of water, ATP and reduced NADP are synthesis
Photosynthesis – Energy Transfer Processes (Cambridge A‑Level 9700)
explain that during photophosphorylation: energetic electrons release energy as they pass through the electron transport chain (details of carriers are not expected), the released energy is used to transfer protons across the thylakoid membrane, prot
Photosynthesis – Energy Transfer and Carbon Assimilation (Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level)
Identify, in diagrams, photomicrographs and electron micrographs, the parts of a nephron and its associated blood vessels and structures, limited to: glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, c
Homeostasis in Mammals – The Nephron (Cambridge IGCSE / A‑Level)
outline the theory of evolution as a process leading to the formation of new species from pre-existing species over time, as a result of changes to gene pools from generation to generation
Evolution – Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700) – Topic 17
use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer scale to make measurements and use the appropriate units, millimetre (mm), micrometre (µm) and nanometre (nm)
Microscope Measurements in Cell Studies (Cambridge 9700)
State where each of the four stages in aerobic respiration occurs in eukaryotic cells: glycolysis in the cytoplasm, link reaction in the mitochondrial matrix, Krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix, oxidative phosphorylation on the inner membrane of
Respiration – Aerobic Pathway (Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700)
explain that genetic engineering may help to solve the global demand for food by improving the quality and productivity of farmed animals and crop plants, using the examples of GM salmon, herbicide resistance in soybean and insect resistance in cotto
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology – Syllabus‑Aligned Revision Notes
describe the behaviour of chromosomes in plant and animal cells during the mitotic cell cycle and the associated behaviour of the nuclear envelope, the cell surface membrane and the spindle (names of the main stages of mitosis are expected: prophase,
Chromosome Behaviour in the Mitotic Cell Cycle (Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level Biology 9700 – Topic 5 & 5.2)
state that the bases adenine and guanine are purines with a double ring structure, and that the bases cytosine, thymine and uracil are pyrimidines with a single ring structure (structural formulae for bases are not expected)
Structure of Nucleic Acids and DNA Replication (Cambridge AS & A Level – Topic 6)
use the Hardy–Weinberg principle to calculate allele and genotype frequencies in populations and state the conditions when this principle can be applied (the two equations for the Hardy–Weinberg principle will be provided, as shown in the Mathematica
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700) – Selection, Evolution and Population Genetics
interpret and construct genetic diagrams, including Punnett squares, to explain and predict the results of dihybrid crosses that involve autosomal linkage and epistasis (knowledge of the expected ratios for different types of epistasis is not expecte
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700) – Genetics and Core Cellular Concepts
recognise organelles and other cell structures found in eukaryotic cells and outline their structures and functions, limited to: cell surface membrane, nucleus, nuclear envelope and nucleolus, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum
describe the behaviour of chromosomes in plant and animal cells during meiosis and the associated behaviour of the nuclear envelope, the cell surface membrane and the spindle (names of the main stages of meiosis, but not the sub-divisions of prophase
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology – Complete Syllabus Notes (9700)
describe the structure of a molecule of haemoglobin as an example of a globular protein, including the formation of its quaternary structure from two alpha (α) chains (α–globin), two beta (β) chains (β–globin) and a haem group
Proteins – Haemoglobin as a Model Globular Protein
explain that natural selection occurs because populations have the capacity to produce many offspring that compete for resources; in the ‘struggle for existence’, individuals that are best adapted are most likely to survive to reproduce and pass on t
Natural and Artificial Selection – A‑Level Biology (9700)
describe the structure of a DNA molecule as a double helix, including: the importance of complementary base pairing between the 5′ to 3′ strand and the 3′ to 5′ strand (antiparallel strands), differences in hydrogen bonding between C–G and A–T base p
6.1 Structure of Nucleic Acids & DNA Replication (Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level 9700)
explain the roles of the sinoatrial node, the atrioventricular node and the Purkyne tissue in the cardiac cycle (knowledge of nervous and hormonal control is not expected)
The Heart – Structure, Cardiac Cycle and Electrical Conduction System
outline the three main stages of the Calvin cycle: rubisco catalyses the fixation of carbon dioxide by combination with a molecule of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), a 5C compound, to yield two molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP), a 3C compound, GP
Photosynthesis – Energy Transfer Process (Cambridge 9700)
describe and carry out investigations using redox indicators, including DCPIP and methylene blue, to determine the effects of temperature and substrate concentration on the rate of respiration of yeast
Respiration – Investigating the Effects of Temperature and Substrate Concentration Using Redox Indicators
explain that during oxidative phosphorylation: hydrogen atoms split into protons and energetic electrons, energetic electrons release energy as they pass through the electron transport chain (details of carriers are not expected), the released energy
describe the semi-conservative replication of DNA during the S phase of the cell cycle, including: the roles of DNA polymerase and DNA ligase (knowledge of other enzymes in DNA replication in cells and different types of DNA polymerase is not expecte
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology – Nucleic Acids & DNA Replication
describe and use suitable methods to assess the distribution and abundance of organisms in an area, limited to frame quadrats, line transects, belt transects and mark-release-recapture using the Lincoln index (the formula for the Lincoln index will b
Biodiversity – Assessing Distribution and Abundance (Cambridge AS & A‑Level Biology 9700)
describe the principles of cell signalling using the example of the control of blood glucose concentration by glucagon, limited to: binding of hormone to cell surface receptor causing conformational change, activation of G-protein leading to stimulat
describe the roles of phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, proteins and glycoproteins in cell surface membranes, with reference to stability, fluidity, permeability, transport (carrier proteins and channel proteins), cell signalling (cell surface
Fluid‑Mosaic Model – Cambridge AS & A Level Biology (9700)
interpret and construct genetic diagrams, including Punnett squares, to explain and predict the results of monohybrid crosses and dihybrid crosses that involve dominance, codominance, multiple alleles and sex linkage
Cambridge AS & A‑Level Biology – Topic 16 Inheritance
recognise arteries, veins and capillaries from microscope slides, photomicrographs and electron micrographs and make plan diagrams showing the structure of arteries and veins in transverse section (TS) and longitudinal section (LS)
state the name and type of pathogen that causes each of the following diseases: cholera – caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, malaria – caused by the protoctists Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium vivax,
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