outline the role in conservation of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

Conservation – Biodiversity, Threats and International Responses

1. What is Biodiversity?

• Definition (Cambridge 9700 – Topic 18): the variety of life at three hierarchical levels.
• Levels

  • Genetic diversity – variation within a species (different alleles, genotypes).
    

    Example: multiple disease‑resistance genes in wild wheat.

  • Species diversity – number of different species and their relative abundances.
    

    Example: 1 200 bird species in the Amazon rainforest.

  • Ecosystem diversity – variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes.
    

    Example: mangroves, coral reefs, temperate forests, grasslands.

• Why it matters (AO2)

  • Greater ecosystem stability – diverse communities are less likely to collapse after a disturbance.
  • Higher productivity – e.g., mixed‑species crops can yield 10–20 % more than monocultures.
  • Resilience to change – genetic variation supplies raw material for natural selection, allowing populations to adapt to disease, climate extremes, or new predators.

2. Major Threats to Biodiversity (Cambridge key concepts)

3. Conservation Strategies

• In‑situ conservation – protecting species in their natural habitats

  • Protected‑area networks (national parks, wildlife reserves, marine protected areas).
  • Habitat restoration – re‑forestation, coral‑reef rehabilitation, wetland creation.
  • Ecological corridors that reconnect fragmented populations.
  • Legislation (e.g., Wildlife Protection Acts, national biodiversity strategies).

• Ex‑situ conservation – safeguarding species outside their natural environment

  • Zoos, botanical gardens, aquaria.
  • Seed banks, sperm/egg cryopreservation.
  • Captive‑breeding and carefully managed re‑introduction programmes.
  • Genetic rescue – translocating individuals to increase genetic diversity and reduce inbreeding depression.

• Legislative & trade controls – international treaties (CITES, CBD) and national laws that regulate use.
• Community‑based approaches – involving local people in sustainable resource use, benefit‑sharing, and incorporating traditional knowledge.
• Ecosystem‑services valuation – assigning economic value to pollination, carbon sequestration, water purification, etc., to justify investment.

4. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

• Founded: 1948 – the world’s leading scientific authority on the status of the natural world.
• Core products

  • Red List of Threatened Species

    • Quantitative assessment using five criteria: (1) population size, (2) rate of decline, (3) geographic range, (4) degree of population fragmentation, (5) quantitative analysis of extinction risk.
    • Categories: Extinct (EX), Extinct in the Wild (EW), Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU), Near‑Threatened (NT), Least Concern (LC), Data Deficient (DD), Not Evaluated (NE).
    • > 140 000 species evaluated (2023); e.g., African elephant moved from EN to VU after successful anti‑poaching measures.

  • IUCN Protected‑Area Management Categories (I–VI)

    • Category II – National Parks (strict protection, ecosystem conservation).
    • Category IV – Habitat/Species Management Areas (active intervention).
    • etc.

• Key activities

  • Species assessments and Red‑List updates.
  • Global monitoring programmes (e.g., Global Forest Watch, Freshwater Biodiversity Atlas).
  • Capacity‑building workshops for wildlife managers in > 150 countries.
  • Policy advice to UN conventions, national biodiversity strategies, and private‑sector sustainability frameworks.

• Governance – World Conservation Congress (every 4 years) and an elected Council; > 1 400 member organisations (governments, NGOs, Indigenous groups).
• Legal status – advisory; its scientific assessments inform legislation but are not themselves legally binding.

5. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

• Adopted: 1973; entered into force 1975 – a legally binding multilateral treaty.
• Purpose – ensure that international trade in wild‑caught specimens does not threaten species survival.
• Structure – Appendices

  1. Appendix I – Species threatened with extinction; commercial trade prohibited except for non‑commercial purposes (e.g., scientific research) with both export and import permits.
  2. Appendix II – Species not currently threatened but could become so without trade controls; requires an export permit (no import permit needed).
  3. Appendix III – Species protected in at least one country that has asked for assistance; trade requires a permit from the listing country.

• National implementation bodies

  • Management Authority – issues permits, enforces regulations, reports trade data to the CITES Secretariat.
  • Scientific Authority – advises on the sustainability of exports, ensures that trade will not be detrimental to the species.

• Decision‑making – Conference of the Parties (CoP) meets every 2–3 years to amend Appendices, adopt resolutions, and evaluate compliance.
• Legal status – binding on all Parties; national legislation must incorporate CITES provisions.
• Trade‑monitoring data (2022)

  • ≈ 21 million CITES permits issued worldwide.
  • Top traded groups: orchids, timber (e.g., rosewood), elephants (ivory), pangolins.
  • Case study: Appendix I listing of African elephant (1989) led to a 70 % decline in illegal ivory seizures by 2005, though recent poaching spikes show enforcement challenges.

6. How IUCN and CITES Complement One Another

1. Data flow – Red‑List assessments provide the scientific evidence used by CITES Parties when proposing new listings or revisions.
2. Policy synergy – IUCN’s Protected‑Area guidelines (e.g., Category II National Parks) create the on‑the‑ground context where CITES trade controls are most effective.
3. Joint initiatives – “CITES‑IUCN Species Survival Plans” combine trade regulation, habitat protection, and captive‑breeding (e.g., Philippine eagle recovery programme).
4. Monitoring & feedback loop – CITES trade data feed back to IUCN to reassess population trends, ensuring a dynamic conservation response.

7. Critical Evaluation (AO2 – Application)

• IUCN – Strengths

  • Robust, peer‑reviewed methodology (Red‑List criteria) ensures scientific credibility.
  • Global reach – > 1 400 members provide wide stakeholder representation.
  • Influences policy across sectors (finance, tourism, agriculture) through ecosystem‑services valuation.

• IUCN – Limitations

  • Advisory nature – no enforcement power; relies on governments to act on its recommendations.
  • Data gaps – many invertebrates, fungi and marine taxa remain “Data Deficient”.
  • Assessment updates can lag behind rapid declines, reducing timeliness.

• CITES – Strengths

  • Legally binding treaty – non‑compliance can trigger trade sanctions.
  • Clear permit system provides traceability of wildlife products.
  • Demonstrated successes (e.g., reduction in illegal trade of African grey parrots, ivory trade curbs).

• CITES – Limitations

  • Enforcement varies widely; weak customs capacity and corruption hinder effectiveness.
  • Focuses on trade alone – does not directly address habitat loss, the primary driver for many species.
  • Appendix listings can be politically contested, causing delays in protection.

8. Case Study – Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus)

• IUCN Red List: Endangered (EN) – criteria: > 50 % population decline over three generations; fragmented range.
• CITES status: Appendix I (since 1995) – commercial trade in live elephants, ivory and parts prohibited.
• Conservation actions

  • Protected‑area expansion in India, Thailand and Sri Lanka (IUCN Category II).
  • Elephant‑corridor projects linking fragmented habitats and reducing human‑elephant conflict.
  • Anti‑poaching patrols supported by CITES‑mandated permit monitoring and international funding.
  • Community‑based ecotourism schemes that provide income to villages bordering reserves.

• Outcome – Population stabilised in several range states, but ongoing habitat loss and human‑elephant conflict highlight the need for integrated in‑situ protection and trade‑control measures.

9. Key Points for Examination (Cambridge AS & A‑Level)

1. Define biodiversity and describe its three levels (genetic, species, ecosystem) with an example for each.
2. List and explain the main threats to biodiversity, including emerging disease, giving a relevant example for each.
3. Distinguish between in‑situ and ex‑situ conservation; give two examples of each, mentioning restoration ecology and genetic rescue where appropriate.
4. State the purpose of the IUCN Red List, name its five quantitative criteria, and cite a species that has moved between categories.
5. Explain the three CITES Appendices, the criteria for listing, and the roles of national Management and Scientific Authorities.
6. Describe how IUCN scientific assessments inform CITES decisions (data flow).
7. Evaluate the effectiveness of IUCN and CITES, mentioning at least one strength and one limitation of each.
8. Use a case study (e.g., Asian elephant, pangolin, or cheetah) to illustrate the interaction between biodiversity loss, international trade regulation and on‑the‑ground conservation.

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