Media representations of class, gender, ethnicity and age groups

Paper 4 – Media, Globalisation & Religion: Representation and Effects

Objective

Analyse how media, globalisation and religion construct representations of class, gender, ethnicity and age, and evaluate the sociological significance of these representations for inequality, identity and social change.

1. Scope of Paper 4 (Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology 9699)

• Globalisation – perspectives, impacts on identity, power, politics, poverty/inequality, migration, crime, and contemporary debates.
• Media – ownership & control, regulation, traditional vs. new media, convergence, key theories of representation, and media‑effects models.
• Religion – religion as a social institution, secularisation, feminist and post‑modern critiques.

2. Globalisation

2.1 Key Perspectives

• World‑systems / Dependency theory – core‑periphery relations create unequal flows of capital, labour and resources.
• Cultural homogenisation – dominance of Western (especially US) cultural forms.
• Cultural hybridisation / Glocalisation – local cultures reinterpret global influences, producing new forms.

2.2 Social Impacts

• Identity formation – transnational identities, diaspora communities, and “global selves”.
• Power & politics – role of multinational corporations, supranational bodies (WTO, IMF, UN), and state‑global power relations.
• Poverty & inequality – uneven development, informal economies, and the “race to the bottom”.
• Crime & security – cross‑border crime, cyber‑crime, and securitisation of migration.

2.3 Migration & Political Dimensions

• Migration flows – labour migration (e.g., Gulf states), refugee movements, and brain‑drain/gain.
• Remittances – a major source of income for many low‑income countries; influence on household status.
• Political influence – lobbying by diaspora groups, policy pressure on supranational institutions, and the rise of anti‑immigration parties.

2.4 Contemporary Globalisation Issues (Case‑studies)

• Digital capitalism – platform economies (Amazon, Uber) and data‑colonialism.
• Climate‑justice – climate‑induced migration and the Green New Deal debate.
• COVID‑19 – disruption of global supply chains and the debate over “de‑globalisation”.
• Gig‑economy & precarity – how global platforms reshape class and labour relations.

3. Media

3.1 Ownership, Control & Regulation (Political Economy)

• Concentration of ownership – a handful of conglomerates dominate TV, print and online (e.g., News Corp, Disney‑Warner, Bertelsmann).
• State ownership & public‑service broadcasting – BBC, PBS, ABC; remit to inform, educate and reflect national diversity.
• Regulatory frameworks – Ofcom (UK), FCC (USA), EU Audiovisual Media Services Directive; rules on ownership limits, impartiality, and content standards.
• Sociological implication – owners and regulators shape agenda‑setting, framing and the range of social groups that are visible.

3.2 Traditional vs. New Media & Convergence

Media Type	Key Characteristics	Typical Influence on Representation
Traditional (print, radio, broadcast TV)	One‑way transmission; regulated schedules; professional gate‑keeping.	Broad‑audience framing; often reflects owners’ editorial policies and national norms.
New (social media, streaming, podcasts)	Interactive, user‑generated content, algorithmic feeds, real‑time feedback.	Fragmented audiences; can reinforce stereotypes (viral trends) or provide counter‑narratives.
Convergence	News organisations publish across TV, web, apps, podcasts; audiences switch platforms seamlessly.	Blurs boundaries between “traditional” and “new”; multiplies points of representation and control.

3.3 Theoretical Perspectives on Media Representation

• Functionalist / Consensus – media mirror shared values and maintain social order.
• Political Economy (Marxist / Critical) – media reproduce class relations and serve owners’ interests.
• Feminist Theory – media perpetuate patriarchal gender ideologies and objectify women.
• Cultural Studies (Hall) – representation is contested; audiences actively decode texts.
• Symbolic Interactionism – media provide symbols (clothing, speech, gestures) that individuals use to construct and negotiate identities.
• Intersectionality – class, gender, ethnicity, age and other categories intersect, producing layered representations.

3.4 Media Effects Models

• Cultivation Theory – long‑term exposure shapes perceptions of social reality (e.g., “Mean World Syndrome”).
• Agenda‑Setting & Framing – media decide what we think about and how we think about it.
• Symbolic Interactionism (media as symbolic resource) – symbols from media guide everyday interaction (e.g., gendered dress codes).
• Reception / Encoding‑Decoding (Hall) – dominant, negotiated and oppositional readings.

4. Representations of Social Groups

4.1 Class

Media Form	Working‑Class Representation	Middle/Upper‑Class Representation
News	Crime, unemployment, welfare dependence.	Business success, political leadership, expert commentary.
Reality TV	“Rags‑to‑riches” hardship narratives; sensationalist poverty.	Luxury lifestyles, aspirational consumption (e.g., “Million Pound Menu”).
Advertising	Discount brands, price‑focused messaging.	Premium brands, status symbols, lifestyle aspiration.

4.2 Gender

• Women
  • Objectified in advertising – focus on appearance, body shape (e.g., Instagram beauty‑product ads).
  • Domestic or caregiving roles dominate drama and sitcoms.
  • Under‑represented as experts in news and current‑affairs programmes.
• Men
  • Portrayed as strong, rational, in control.
  • Emphasis on career, power and physical strength (action‑hero films).
  • Emotional vulnerability often discouraged or mocked.

4.3 Ethnicity

Type of Stereotype	Typical Media Example	Potential Impact
Criminality	News stories linking specific ethnic groups to violent crime.	Stigmatization, heightened fear, policy bias.
Exoticism / Otherness	Reality‑TV clips that highlight “exotic” customs for drama.	Reinforces “us vs. them” narratives; cultural misunderstanding.
Victimhood	Documentaries focusing on discrimination (e.g., “The Colour of Fear”).	Raises awareness but can confine groups to a single narrative.

4.4 Age

• Children – innocent, needing protection; heavily targeted by toy, cereal and “educational” apps.
• Teenagers – rebellious, trend‑driven; used to sell fashion, music, gaming (e.g., TikTok challenges).
• Older adults – often invisible or shown as frail, dependent, or nostalgic (e.g., “golden‑years” travel ads).

5. From Representation to Social Reality

5.1 Cultivation Theory

Repeated exposure to crime‑heavy news cultivates a “Mean World Syndrome”, making audiences over‑estimate the prevalence of crime.

5.2 Symbolic Interactionism

Media supply symbols (e.g., gendered clothing, speech styles) that individuals use to negotiate classed and gendered identities in everyday interaction.

5.3 Agenda‑Setting & Framing

Media do not tell us what to think, but what to think about and how to think about it. Framing ethnic minorities as “problematic” can shape public opinion and influence immigration policy.

5.4 Reception Studies (Encoding/Decoding)

1. Dominant (hegemonic) reading – audience accepts the intended meaning.
2. Negotiated reading – audience accepts some elements, resists others.
3. Oppositional reading – audience rejects the dominant meaning and creates an alternative interpretation.

6. Critical Evaluation Checklist for Media Texts

• Accuracy – Does the portrayal reflect empirical data?
• Balance – Are multiple perspectives and social groups included?
• Power relations – Who benefits from the representation? Who is marginalised?
• Audience impact – Likely effects on attitudes, behaviours, and policy?
• Intersectionality – Are overlapping identities (class + gender + ethnicity + age) considered?

7. Suggested Diagram (text description)

8. Religion (Paper 4 Component)

• Religion as a Social Institution – provides meaning, social cohesion, moral order and a framework for collective identity.
• Secularisation Debate – decline of religious authority vs. persistence of belief; “new secularism” (e.g., rise of “spiritual but not religious” in the UK).
• Feminist & Gender Critiques – how doctrines, rituals and leadership structures reinforce gender hierarchies (e.g., restrictions on women’s ordination).
• Post‑modern Perspectives – pluralism, individualised spirituality, and the fragmentation of traditional religious authority.

9. Summary

Media, globalisation and religion are inter‑linked forces that construct and reinforce social hierarchies related to class, gender, ethnicity and age. By applying a range of sociological perspectives—from functionalist to feminist, political economy, cultural studies and symbolic interactionism—students can critically assess how representations shape public consciousness, influence policy and contribute to (re)producing inequality.

10. Suggested Further Reading

• Hall, S. (1997). Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices.
• McQuail, D. (2010). McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.
• Gill, R. (2007). Gender and the Media.
• van Dijk, T. (1991). Racism and the Press.
• Livingstone, S. (2004). The Youth Media Project.
• Barber, B. (1995). Jihad vs. McWorld – globalisation perspectives.
• Berger, P. (2014). Religion in Modern Society.
• Castells, M. (2010). The Rise of the Network Society – digital globalisation.
• Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism – political economy of media.