To evaluate how media (traditional and new) represent people, groups and ideas and the ways in which these representations influence audience attitudes, beliefs and observable behaviour.
2. Key Concepts
Media representation – the portrayal of people, groups, events and ideas in media texts.
Media effects – the influence that media content has on audiences’ attitudes, beliefs and actions.
Behavioural impact – measurable changes in actions, consumption patterns or social interaction that result from media exposure.
Audience – the individuals or groups who receive and interpret media messages.
Globalisation is the increasing inter‑connection of societies through the flow of capital, people, ideas and media. The syllabus expects students to discuss the major debates, key concepts and a range of theoretical perspectives.
3.1 Core debates
Homogenisation (cultural imperialism) – media from dominant (core) nations spread a uniform set of values, lifestyles and consumer habits (e.g., “McDonaldisation”).
Hybridisation (glocalisation) – local cultures reinterpret and combine global media content, producing new, mixed forms (e.g., Bollywood remakes of Hollywood blockbusters).
Power & identity – media help construct trans‑national identities (diaspora, “global youth”) while also reinforcing power hierarchies through ownership and agenda‑setting.
Inequality – the digital divide, unequal access to high‑speed internet, and media‑driven consumerism exacerbate existing global inequalities.
3.2 Perspectives
World‑systems perspective – views global media as tools of core nations that maintain economic dependency of peripheral states.
Neoliberal perspective – argues that deregulated global media markets expand consumer choice and cultural exchange.
Post‑colonial perspective – highlights how global media can reproduce colonial power relations, marginalising non‑Western voices.
Critical‑cultural perspective – emphasises resistance, hybrid cultures and the role of audiences in reshaping global media narratives.
3.3 Contemporary issues
Migration flows and the media’s role in shaping public opinion on refugees.
Global poverty and the portrayal of the “developing world” in news and entertainment.
Transnational crime and the sensationalisation of drug‑trafficking in popular series.
Digital economies, platform capitalism and the rise of data‑driven advertising.
Media‑driven identity formation among diaspora communities (e.g., K‑pop fandoms).
4. Media – Ownership & Control
Political‑economic approaches stress that who owns and controls media shapes the range of viewpoints that reach the public.
Concentration of ownership – a few conglomerates (e.g., News Corp, Disney‑Warner) dominate production and distribution, influencing agenda‑setting and framing.
Public‑service vs. commercial – public broadcasters (BBC, ABC) have a statutory duty to provide balanced content; commercial outlets pursue profit‑driven programming.
Regulation & censorship – bodies such as Ofcom (UK) and the FCC (US) set limits on ownership, advertising, and harmful content.
State‑run media – examples include China’s CCTV and Russia’s RT, where the state directly influences news selection and framing.
Global media ownership – multinational mergers mean that a single corporation can own outlets in many countries, reinforcing world‑systems dynamics.
5. Theoretical Approaches to Media Effects
Theory
Core Assumptions
Mechanism of Influence
Key Proponents
Cultivation Theory
Long‑term exposure to television creates a shared social reality.
Heavy viewers adopt a “TV‑world view” that guides everyday behaviour.
George Gerbner
Social Learning Theory
People learn by observing models and imitating behaviours.
Observational learning of attitudes and actions shown in media.
Albert Bandura
Agenda‑Setting Theory
Media do not tell us what to think, but what to think about.
Salient issues become socially important, influencing public discourse and actions.
McCombs & Shaw
Framing Theory
Media present information within particular interpretive frames.
Frames shape perception and subsequent behaviour towards the issue.
Erving Goffman (concept); Robert Entman (application)
Uses & Gratifications
Audiences actively select media to satisfy personal or social needs.
Behaviour changes when media fulfil needs such as identity formation or social interaction.
Elihu Katz & Jay G. Blumler
Network Society (Castells)
Information technologies reorganise social structures into networked forms.
New‑media platforms enable rapid diffusion of ideas and collective action.
Manuel Castells
Participatory Culture (Jenkins)
Audiences are no longer passive consumers but active producers.
User‑generated content (e.g., memes, challenges) influences norms and practices.
Henry Jenkins
6. Media Representation of Social Groups
Representation studies examine how class, gender, ethnicity and age are constructed in media texts and the consequences for audience attitudes.
Class – Harvey (2018) found that BBC News coverage of unemployment consistently framed working‑class job loss as “personal failure”, reinforcing stereotypes of laziness.
Gender – Signorielli & Bacue (2012) reported that adolescents who regularly watched reality TV were more likely to endorse traditional gender roles; Ward (2003) showed sexualised advertising increased acceptance of objectifying attitudes toward women.
Ethnicity – Mastro (2015) demonstrated that U.S. reality TV programmes disproportionately portrayed ethnic minorities as criminals or comedic side‑kicks, influencing viewers’ racial attitudes.
Age – Livingstone (2020) documented that youth‑targeted advertising on platforms such as TikTok promotes consumerist values and accelerates early brand loyalty.
7. Empirical Evidence of Behavioural Impact
Violence and Aggression
Anderson & Bushman (2001) meta‑analysis: exposure to violent media predicts short‑term aggression (r = .20).
Huesmann et al. (2003) longitudinal study: high childhood exposure to TV violence linked to increased violent behaviour at age 20.
Health‑Related Behaviour
Smoking – the 1990s UK tobacco‑advertising ban contributed to a measurable decline in youth smoking rates (Public Health England, 2015).
Obesity – Harris et al. (2009) found a positive correlation between exposure to high‑calorie food advertising and increased adolescent caloric intake.
Political Participation
BBC “Election Night” (2005) coverage correlated with a 12 % rise in voter turnout among first‑time voters (BBC Research, 2006).
Social‑media activism – the “Arab Spring” illustrated how online platforms can mobilise collective action (Howard & Hussain, 2011).
Gender Stereotypes – see Section 6.
Class, Ethnicity & Age – see Section 6.
8. Traditional vs. New Media & Their Impact
Traditional media – television, radio, newspapers and magazines; characterised by one‑to‑many transmission, regulated ownership and relatively stable production cycles.
New media – social networking sites, streaming services, podcasts, blogs and mobile apps; characterised by many‑to‑many interaction, user‑generated content and algorithmic recommendation.
Network Society (Castells) explains how digital connectivity reshapes power relations, allowing marginalised groups to bypass mainstream gatekeepers.
Participatory Culture (Jenkins) highlights how audiences co‑create meanings (e.g., TikTok challenges) that can normalise risky behaviours or, conversely, promote health campaigns.
Case study: the “#MeToo” movement spread rapidly through Twitter and Instagram, altering public discourse on sexual harassment and prompting policy changes in workplaces worldwide.
9. Critical Evaluation of Media Effects Research
Strengths
Limitations
Large‑scale surveys provide representative data on media consumption patterns.
Self‑report bias – participants may under‑report exposure to undesirable content.
Experimental designs allow for causal inference (e.g., manipulation of media content).
Ecological validity – laboratory settings may not reflect real‑world media use.
Longitudinal studies track changes over time, reducing reverse‑causality concerns.
Attrition bias – participants dropping out can skew results.
Mixed‑methods combine quantitative breadth with qualitative depth.
Complex media environments make it difficult to isolate single variables.
10. Applying Theory to Real‑World Cases (Exam Framework)
Identify the media form (traditional vs. new, e.g., TV news, TikTok).
Describe the content and the target audience.
Choose an appropriate theoretical lens (e.g., Social Learning for a viral challenge; Framing for news coverage).
Present empirical evidence that supports or contradicts the expected behavioural impact.
Evaluate the evidence, discussing methodological strengths and weaknesses.
Conclude with a balanced judgement on the likely impact on behaviour.
11. Suggested Diagram
Flowchart: Media content → audience interpretation (via framing, cultivation, network effects) → behavioural outcomes (aggression, health choices, political action). Include feedback loops where audience behaviour influences future media production (e.g., algorithmic recommendation, audience ratings).
12. Summary Points
Media shape behaviour through direct imitation, cultivation of worldviews, agenda‑setting, framing and participatory processes.
Empirical studies consistently link media exposure to aggression, health behaviours, political participation and the reinforcement of gender, class, ethnic and age stereotypes.
Research methods vary; each has specific advantages and constraints that affect the credibility of findings.
Critical evaluation – always discuss supporting and contradictory evidence, methodological rigour and the broader socio‑economic context (globalisation, ownership, regulation).
Your generous donation helps us continue providing free Cambridge IGCSE & A-Level resources,
past papers, syllabus notes, revision questions, and high-quality online tutoring to students across Kenya.