Religion as a source of social change

Paper 4 – Religion: Religion and Social Change

1. Key Concepts

• Religion: A system of beliefs, practices, symbols and institutions that gives meaning to life and provides a framework for moral conduct.
• Social Order: The patterned ways in which society is organised and regulated, producing stability and predictability.
• Social Change: Significant alteration over time in patterns of social relationships, cultural symbols, institutions or structures.
• Secularisation: The declining influence of religion on individuals, organisations and the state.
• Revivalism / Fundamentalism: A resurgence of religious belief and practice, often in reaction to perceived social decline.
• New Religious Movements (NRMs): Small, often innovative groups that reinterpret existing doctrines or create new ones.

2. Theoretical Perspectives on Religion and Social Order

Perspective	Core Assumptions	Religion’s Function for Social Order	Implications for Social Change
Functionalist (Durkheim)	Society is a system of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability.	Creates a collective conscience, shared symbols and rituals that bind people together.	When rituals lose integrative power, anomie may emerge, prompting change.
Conflict (Marx)	Society is characterised by class struggle and domination.	Legitimises inequality (e.g., “opiate of the masses”) and preserves the status quo.	Change occurs when the oppressed reject religious justification and mobilise against domination.
Interpretive (Weber)	Social action is meaningful and shaped by individual interpretations.	Provides world‑views that shape motivations (e.g., Protestant ethic, “calling”).	Shifts in religious ideas can re‑orient economic behaviour and spur transformation.
Interactionist	Focus on everyday interactions and symbolic meanings.	Religion is a set of symbols negotiated in daily life, reinforcing or challenging norms.	Re‑interpretation of symbols (e.g., gender roles) can generate micro‑level change that aggregates upward.

3. Religion and the Maintenance of Social Order

• Legitimation of authority: Sacred texts or clergy endorse political power (e.g., Divine Right, theocratic states).
• Moral regulation: Religious norms prescribe acceptable behaviour, reducing deviance (e.g., taboos on theft, adultery).
• Social control through rituals: Regular worship, rites of passage and festivals reinforce hierarchy and shared values.
• Identity formation: Collective religious identity creates in‑group solidarity that can resist external challenges.

4. Religion as a Source of Social Change

4.1 Secularisation Theory

Predicts a decline in religious authority, leading to:

1. Lower church attendance and affiliation.
2. Greater reliance on scientific rationality and individualism.
3. Transfer of moral regulation from religious to secular institutions (e.g., courts, NGOs).

Critiques: Continued religiosity in many regions, the rise of “spiritual but not religious” identities, and evidence of “de‑secularisation” in some contexts.

4.2 Revivalism & Fundamentalism

• Mobilise collective action (e.g., anti‑globalisation protests led by Islamic groups).
• Reassert traditional values in response to perceived moral decay.
• Create new political identities (e.g., the Christian Right in the USA, Hindu nationalism in India).

4.3 New Religious Movements (NRMs)

• Alternative lifestyles (communal living, gender equality – e.g., the Bruderhof).
• Innovative theological ideas that reinterpret tradition (e.g., Falun Gong’s synthesis of Buddhism and qigong).
• Transnational networks that spread ideas across borders via the internet.

4.4 Religion and Social Movements

Religion supplies resources, moral legitimacy and organisational structures for broader movements.

Movement	Religious Basis	Key Social Change
American Civil Rights (1950s‑60s)	Black churches; Christian ethics of equality	End of legal segregation; expanded voting rights.
Solidarity, Poland (1980s)	Roman Catholic Church as moral authority	Transition from communist rule to democracy.
Women’s Liberation in Iran (1979‑present)	Islamic feminism interpreting the Qur’an	Debates over gender law, dress codes and public space.
Environmental activism (e.g., Standing Rock)	Indigenous spiritual world‑views	Policy changes on pipeline construction; greater recognition of Indigenous rights.
Muslim diaspora in Europe	Local mosques and transnational Islamic NGOs	Influence on host‑society debates about integration, religious education and anti‑radicalisation policies.

4.5 Religion and Economic Change

• Weber’s “Protestant Ethic” hypothesis links religious ideas to capitalist development.
• Contemporary evidence:
  • Higher rates of entrepreneurship in societies where work‑ethic religions dominate (e.g., Protestant‑majority regions).
  • Religiously motivated ethical consumption (halal, kosher, fair‑trade faith‑based labels).

5. Globalisation, Religion and Social Change

5.1 Key Globalisation Perspectives

Approach	Core Idea	Link to Religion
World‑systems	Core‑periphery relations shape economic and cultural flows.	Pentecostalism spreads from the Global South to core nations through missionary networks, reshaping religious markets.
Dependency	Developing countries are dependent on the economic and cultural dominance of the core.	Faith‑based NGOs from the West fund development projects, creating new religious‑social partnerships.
Global‑civilisation	Increasing cultural homogenisation and the emergence of a global culture.	Internet‑mediated “global Christianity” or “global Islam” produces shared symbols (e.g., viral prayer videos).
Glocalisation	Global ideas are adapted locally, producing hybrid forms.	“Christian hip‑hop” in Africa or “Buddhist mindfulness” in corporate America illustrate local reinterpretation.

5.2 Religion, Poverty & Inequality

• Faith‑based charities (e.g., Caritas, Islamic Relief) provide education, health care and micro‑finance in low‑income contexts.
• Religious NGOs can both alleviate poverty and reinforce patron‑client relations that sustain inequality.
• Case example: Liberation theology in Latin America mobilised churches to challenge land‑ownership patterns, contributing to agrarian reform.

5.3 Migration and Religious Landscape

Case study – Muslim diaspora in Europe

• Post‑World War II labour migration created sizable Muslim communities in the UK, France, Germany and the Netherlands.
• Transnational ties (remittances, online prayer groups) maintain religious identity across borders.
• Impact on host societies:
  • Policy debates on religious symbols in public spaces (e.g., French “laïcité” bans on headscarves).
  • Emergence of inter‑faith initiatives that reshape multicultural citizenship.

5.4 Globalisation & Crime

• Religiously motivated terrorism: Transnational networks such as Al‑Qaeda or ISIS use global communication to recruit, finance and coordinate attacks.
• Transnational cults: Groups like the Church of Scientology or Aum Shinrikyo illustrate how new religious movements can become involved in criminal activity across borders.
• State responses (surveillance, anti‑terror legislation) illustrate the interaction between religion, crime and global security.

6. Media, Religion and Social Change

6.1 Media Ownership & Control

• State‑owned media: In many authoritarian regimes (e.g., Iran, China) the state controls religious broadcasting to promote official interpretations.
• Commercial ownership: Private broadcasters (e.g., Christian TV networks in the US, Islamic satellite channels) shape religious discourse for profit and audience loyalty.
• Regulatory frameworks: Media‑of‑religion laws (e.g., the UK’s “Broadcasting Code” on religious content) influence what can be aired.

6.2 Media‑Effects Theories and Religion

Theory	Key Propositions	Relevance to Religious Content
Agenda‑setting	Media determine “what” issues are considered important.	Coverage of “Islamic terrorism” makes religion a salient public concern, influencing policy agendas.
Framing	Media present issues in particular ways that shape interpretation.	Framing of Pentecostal prosperity preaching as “consumerist” versus “empowering”.
Cultivation	Long‑term exposure to media content shapes world‑views.	Repeated negative portrayals of Muslim women may cultivate stereotypical attitudes.
Uses & Gratifications	Audiences actively select media to satisfy needs (information, identity, spirituality).	Online prayer streams satisfy spiritual needs of diaspora communities unable to attend local mosques.

6.3 Representation of Religion in the Media

• Class: Religious poverty‑relief charities are often portrayed as “charitable” rather than “political”.
• Gender: Muslim women are frequently shown through the lens of oppression; Christian women are often invisible unless linked to scandals.
• Ethnicity & Age: Young, ethnic‑minority religious adherents are stereotyped as “radical”, while older white congregations are normalised.
• Effects: Such representations can reinforce prejudice, but also mobilise counter‑movements (e.g., #MuslimWomenAreBeautiful campaigns).

6.4 Digital Religious Media – New‑Media Dynamics

Case study – YouTube sermons & TikTok spirituality

• Religious leaders (e.g., Pope Francis, Islamic scholars) use YouTube to reach global audiences, bypassing traditional gatekeepers.
• Short‑form platforms (TikTok, Instagram Reels) host “micro‑spiritualities” – prayer challenges, mindfulness clips, and “spiritual but not religious” memes.
• Implications:
  • Rapid diffusion of theological ideas, sometimes leading to doctrinal disputes.
  • Greater youth engagement and the formation of transnational religious sub‑cultures.
  • Commercialisation of spirituality (e.g., paid livestreams, merch).

7. Religion, Gender and Feminism

• Patriarchal traditions: Many religions embed gender hierarchies (e.g., male clergy, inheritance rules).
• Feminist reinterpretations: Liberation theology, Islamic feminism and feminist Buddhism challenge orthodox readings and advocate gender equality.
• Social change outcomes: Legal reforms (e.g., abolition of Sati in India), increased female leadership in churches, and debates over reproductive rights.

8. Religion in a Post‑Modern Society

• Pluralism & relativism: Post‑modernism questions universal truth claims, encouraging syncretism and individualized spirituality.
• “Spiritual but not religious”: Rise of personal belief systems that draw on multiple traditions, often mediated through digital platforms.
• Implications for social change: New forms of moral authority, fluid identities and the potential for both destabilising traditional institutions and fostering novel collective actions.

9. Illustrative Case Studies

9.1 Pentecostalism in Latin America

• Rapid growth since the 1970s, especially among the urban poor.
• Emphasis on personal empowerment, healing and “prosperity” theology.
• Political impact: Pentecostal legislators influence policies on abortion, education and drug control.

9.2 Dalit Buddhist Movement, India

• Founded by B. R. Ambedkar (1956) as a rejection of caste‑based Hinduism.
• Provides a collective identity that challenges entrenched hierarchy.
• Contributed to legal reforms (e.g., anti‑caste discrimination laws) and increased Dalit representation in parliament.

9.3 Indigenous Spiritualities & Climate Activism

• World‑views link environmental stewardship to spiritual duty.
• Standing Rock protests combined prayer ceremonies with direct action.
• Resulted in stricter regulations on pipeline construction and greater recognition of Indigenous land rights.

9.4 The Muslim Brotherhood and the Arab Spring

• Islamic revivalist organisation that provided organisational capacity and moral framing for protests.
• Facilitated regime change in Egypt (2011) and influenced political discourse across the Middle East.
• Demonstrates both the mobilising power of religion and the contested outcomes of religiously inspired change.

9.5 Digital Religious Media – “YouTube Sermons”

• Global reach of live‑streamed sermons (e.g., the “Global Christian Summit” attracting 2 million viewers).
• Creates virtual congregations, reshapes notions of community and authority.
• Has been used to mobilise humanitarian aid (e.g., disaster‑relief fundraising) and to spread reformist ideas (e.g., progressive Islamic interpretations).

10. Evaluation – Strengths and Limitations of the Argument that Religion Drives Social Change

1. Strengths
   • Provides moral motivation and a collective identity essential for mobilisation.
   • Offers tangible resources (buildings, networks, funding) that can be repurposed for activism.
   • Historical evidence of religion‑led reforms (abolitionism, civil‑rights, anti‑apartheid).
2. Limitations
   • Religion can also reinforce the status quo by legitimising inequality (e.g., caste, gender hierarchies).
   • Secular ideologies (human rights, nationalism, environmentalism) can be equally potent drivers of change.
   • Attribution problem – difficult to isolate religion from economic, political and cultural factors in complex social movements.
   • Variability across contexts: what is a catalyst in one society may be a barrier in another.

11. Summary

Religion remains a dual‑edged force in contemporary societies. Functionalist and interactionist perspectives highlight its capacity to maintain social order through shared symbols, moral regulation and legitimation of authority. Conflict and interpretive approaches reveal how religious ideas can challenge existing structures, inspire collective action and reshape economic behaviour. Globalisation, media, gender debates and post‑modern pluralism have reshaped the ways religion influences both stability and transformation. Empirical case studies—from Pentecostalism in Latin America to Indigenous climate activism and digital religious media—illustrate the complex interplay between belief, identity, organisational resources and broader structural forces. A balanced sociological analysis must therefore assess both the stabilising and disruptive potentials of religion, recognising its interaction with economic, political and cultural contexts.