Religion and social order

Religion and Social Order

1. Introduction

Religion is a set of beliefs, practices and symbols that relate humanity to the sacred or divine. In sociology, the study of religion and social order examines how religion contributes to the stability, cohesion and control of societies, as well as how it can be a source of conflict, inequality and social change.

2. Theoretical Perspectives on Religion

• Functionalism / Structural‑Functionalism – Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons and later functionalists view religion as a source of social cohesion, collective conscience and social control.
• Conflict Theory – Karl Marx, Max Weber, Immanuel Wallerstein and contemporary conflict theorists see religion as an instrument of domination that legitimises inequality, but also as a potential catalyst for resistance.
• Symbolic Interactionism – George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer and Erving Goffman focus on the meanings individuals attach to religious symbols, rituals and identities in everyday interaction.
• Secularisation Debate – The debate centres on whether modernisation inevitably leads to the decline of religion (secularisation) or whether religion adapts and persists (religious revival, post‑secularism).

3. Functionalist Explanation of Religion

Durkheim (1912) argued that religion performs four key functions for social order:

1. Social cohesion – shared rituals and symbols create bonds between members.
2. Collective conscience – a set of common values that unites the group.
3. Social control – religious doctrines prescribe moral behaviour, reinforcing law‑and‑order.
4. Meaning & purpose – religion offers existential answers, reducing anomie and deviance.

4. Conflict Perspective

Karl Marx (1844) – “Religion is the opium of the people”

• Creates a false consciousness that masks exploitation.
• Legitimises class hierarchy by promising rewards in an after‑life.

Max Weber (1905)

• “Protestant ethic” as a catalyst for capitalist development.
• Charismatic authority – religious movements that mobilise political change (e.g., Liberation theology, Pentecostal megachurches).

Immanuel Wallerstein (1974) – World‑Systems View

• Core religions (Christianity, Islam) have historically supported imperial expansion and the global division of labour.

5. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Religion is a set of symbols and meanings interpreted in everyday life.
• Rituals are sites of identity formation (e.g., baptism, Hajj, Friday prayer).
• Negotiation of religious meanings in plural societies leads to inclusion and exclusion (e.g., wearing of hijab in secular schools).
• Micro‑level processes such as Goffman’s “definition of the situation” shape how individuals present themselves as religious or secular.

6. Functions of Religion for Social Order

Function	Explanation	Empirical Evidence (Cambridge‑relevant)
Social cohesion	Shared worship creates bonds and a sense of belonging.	Durkheim’s study of Australian Aboriginal totemism; Putnam (2000) – higher church attendance correlates with greater social trust.
Social control	Religious doctrines prescribe moral behaviour, reinforcing law‑and‑order.	Weber’s analysis of “spiritual authority” of clergy; contemporary research linking religiosity with lower crime rates in neighbourhoods.
Legitimation of authority	Divine right or sacred texts justify political power.	Case study: Church of England’s historic support for the British monarchy; Iran’s theocratic constitution.
Meaning & purpose	Provides existential answers, reducing anxiety and deviance.	Pargament (1997) – strong religious belief linked with lower suicide rates.

7. Religion, Inequality and Social Change

• Gender – Patriarchal interpretations of scripture reinforce male dominance (e.g., restrictions on women’s leadership in many denominations).
• Race / Ethnicity – Caste‑based Hindu practices or the use of religion to justify racial segregation (e.g., apartheid South Africa’s “Christian” justification).
• Class – Religious charities can mask structural poverty; conversely, liberation theology in Latin America mobilises the poor against elite domination.
• Resistance movements – Civil‑rights activism in the US (Martin Luther King Jr.), anti‑apartheid struggle (Desmond Tutu), and contemporary climate‑justice movements framed in religious ethics.

8. Evaluation of Perspectives

Strengths

• Functionalism: Explains the persistence of religion in modern societies and its role in integration.
• Conflict theory: Uncovers power relations, shows how religion can legitimise oppression and also inspire resistance.
• Symbolic interactionism: Provides insight into personal religious experience, identity formation and the micro‑processes of inclusion/exclusion.
• Secularisation debate: Highlights the contested relationship between modernity and religiosity.

Limitations

• Functionalism: Over‑states cohesion, under‑estimates dissent and the role of religion in social change.
• Marxist reductionism: Can ignore the autonomous spiritual dimension and agency of believers.
• Conflict approaches: May over‑emphasise economic determinants and neglect cultural/religious meanings.
• Interactionist studies: Often limited to micro‑contexts; they struggle to explain macro‑level patterns of religious influence.
• Secularisation debate: Tends to treat “religion” as a monolith and may overlook regional revivals.

9. Globalisation – Key Debates, Concepts & Perspectives

9.1 Core Concepts (Cambridge wording)

Concept	Definition
Globalisation	Increasing interdependence of societies through the rapid flow of ideas, capital, people and culture across national borders.
Interdependence	Mutual reliance of states, economies and cultures.
Deterritorialisation	The weakening of the link between cultural practices and specific geographic locations.
Transnationalism	Social, economic and political activities that cross national boundaries while maintaining ties to home societies.

9.2 Theoretical Perspectives

• Functional / Structural‑Functional – Globalisation creates new forms of integration (world‑wide norms, institutions such as WHO, WTO).
• Conflict / World‑Systems – Core states exploit peripheral nations, reproducing global inequality (Wallerstein).
• Post‑modern / Constructivist – Globalisation is a discursive process; identities become fluid, hybrid and continuously re‑negotiated (Baudrillard, Appadurai).

9.3 Sub‑topics Required by the Syllabus

• Globalisation and Identity – “glocal” (local adaptation of global forms) vs. “transnational” identities (e.g., British‑Asian youth, diaspora churches).
• Globalisation, Power & Politics – Soft power of religious NGOs, influence of multinational corporations on national policy.
• Globalisation, Poverty & Inequality – Giddens’ critique of the “race to the bottom”; how global supply chains affect wages and working conditions.
• Globalisation and Crime – Cyber‑crime, drug trafficking, human‑trafficking networks that operate across borders.
• Globalisation and Health – Role of WHO, diffusion of pandemics, health‑care inequalities (e.g., COVID‑19 vaccine distribution).

9.4 Case Studies (≈ 400 words total)

1. Migration & Identity (Post‑modern perspective) – The 2015‑2020 Central American “caravan” to the United States illustrates how global economic disparity and climate‑related crop failures drive migration. Media framing (both “victims” and “economic burden”) shapes the migrants’ emerging transnational identity, highlighting the “glocal” negotiation of culture in host societies.

2. World‑Systems & Poverty (Conflict perspective) – The apparel industry in Bangladesh shows core‑periphery exploitation: Western retailers dictate low price points, Bangladeshi workers face unsafe conditions (e.g., 2013 Rana Plaza collapse). The case exemplifies Wallerstein’s core‑periphery model and the “race to the bottom” debate.

3. Globalisation and Crime (Conflict perspective) – The Sinaloa Cartel uses sophisticated logistics, digital money‑laundering and cross‑border smuggling routes, demonstrating how global networks facilitate illicit economies that challenge state control.

4. Globalisation and Religion (Functional / Post‑modern perspective) – The rapid spread of Pentecostalism in sub‑Saharan Africa via satellite TV, YouTube and megachurch networks shows how global media deterritorialise religious practice, creating “glocal” worship forms that blend local culture with global evangelical styles.

10. Media – Ownership, Control, Representation & Effects

10.1 Ownership & Control

Ownership Type	Typical Owner(s)	Typical Agenda‑Setting Effect
State‑owned	Government ministries or parties	Ideological control; promotion of official policies and national narratives.
Commercial conglomerates	Large private corporations (e.g., Disney, ViacomCBS)	Profit‑driven framing; emphasis on consumerist values and advertiser interests.
Public‑service broadcasters	Mixed public‑private funding (e.g., BBC, PBS, ABC Australia)	Mandated to serve diverse audiences; balance between public interest and limited commercial pressure.
New‑media platforms	Tech giants – Google, Facebook/Meta, TikTok, YouTube	Algorithmic agenda‑setting; personalised content feeds that can reinforce echo chambers.

Example: The 2019 Disney acquisition of 21st Century Fox gave Disney control over 30 % of the US TV market, raising concerns about reduced pluralism and homogenised cultural content.

10.2 Representation & Media Effects Theories

Theory	Core Idea	Cambridge‑relevant Example
Agenda‑setting	Media do not tell us what to think, but what to think about.	Post‑9/11 coverage increased public concern about Muslim communities (McCombs & Shaw, 1972).
Framing	Selection and emphasis of certain aspects of reality shape interpretation.	BBC’s “refugee crisis” framed migrants as victims; right‑wing tabloids framed them as economic threats.
Cultivation	Long‑term TV exposure creates a “reality” that mirrors media portrayals.	Gerbner’s “Mean World Syndrome” – heavy viewers overestimate crime rates.
Uses‑and‑gratifications	Audiences actively select media to satisfy specific needs (information, identity, entertainment).	YouTube religious channels used by young Muslims for identity formation and community building.
Spiral of Silence	People conceal opinions they perceive as minority to avoid isolation.	Minority religious viewpoints may be muted in public debate when dominant media portray them negatively.
Cultivation of Fear (specific to religion)	Repeated negative media portrayals generate heightened fear of a particular group.	Post‑9/11 news coverage cultivated widespread fear of Islam, influencing public support for restrictive policies.

10.3 Media, Religion and Social Order

• Representation – Media portrayals of religious groups influence public perceptions and can reinforce stereotypes (e.g., Muslims as “terrorists” in Western news).
• Social control – State‑controlled media disseminate official religious ideologies (e.g., Iran’s IRIB broadcasting Shi’a doctrine to legitimise the regime).
• Mobilisation – Social media platforms enable transnational religious movements (e.g., #MeToo in faith communities, online evangelism, digital pilgrimages).

11. Synthesis: Religion, Globalisation and Media

Globalisation and media intersect with religion in three inter‑related ways:

1. Diffusion of religious ideas – Online platforms spread doctrines worldwide (viral sermons, TikTok “spirituality” trends, satellite‑TV Pentecostalism).
2. Hybridisation of practice – Global cultural flows create new worship forms (fusion gospel‑hip‑hop services, “glocal” mosque designs).
3. Conflict & Control – Media ownership structures can amplify or suppress religious voices, influencing power relations on a global scale (e.g., commercial media framing of religious minorities vs. state media promoting official religions).

12. Conclusion

Religion remains a powerful social institution that can stabilise societies through cohesion, meaning and legitimation, yet it also reproduces inequality and can inspire transformative social movements. In a globalised, media‑saturated world, the ways in which religious ideas travel, are represented and contested are central to understanding contemporary social order.