Theories of the media and influences on media content

Paper 4 – Media: Ownership and Control

Objective

To understand the main sociological theories of the media, the key factors that influence media content, how globalisation shapes media systems, and how media represent class, gender, ethnicity and age.

1. Globalisation – Key Debates, Concepts & Perspectives

Globalisation refers to the increasing economic, cultural and political inter‑dependence of societies worldwide. In the media context it describes the flow of media content, ownership, technology and audiences across national borders.

• Core concepts
  • Economic globalisation – multinational media conglomerates, cross‑border investment, global advertising markets.
  • Cultural globalisation – diffusion of ideas, values and lifestyles through media (e.g., Hollywood, K‑pop, Netflix).
  • Political globalisation – supranational regulation (EU Digital Services Act), transnational advocacy networks.
• Key debates
  • Cultural imperialism vs. hybridity – does global media impose Western values, or do local audiences create hybrid forms?
  • Global‑local tension – “glocalisation” of content (e.g., localized versions of Netflix originals).
  • Power and inequality – who controls global media flows? (multinational corporations vs. state‑owned broadcasters).
  • Migration & representation – how transnational news frames migrants and refugees.
  • Digital divide – unequal access to internet and new media technologies.
• Sociological perspectives
  • Marxist / World‑Systems – focus on capitalist exploitation and core‑periphery relations.
  • Post‑colonial – examines how former colonies are portrayed in global media.
  • Globalisation theory (e.g., Giddens, Appadurai) – highlights “global cultural flows” and “disjuncture”.
  • Cultural Studies – emphasises audience agency in negotiating global media texts.
• Illustrative examples
  • Netflix’s catalogue of US, Korean, Indian and African series streamed worldwide.
  • BBC World Service and China Global Television Network (CGTN) as state‑funded transnational broadcasters.
  • Disney‑Fox merger creating a media super‑conglomerate with a presence in 190+ countries.
  • Social‑media campaigns (#BlackLivesMatter, #MeToo) spreading across borders and influencing national politics.

2. Theories of the Media

These perspectives explain who controls media, why content takes a particular form and what effects are expected.

Key Media‑Effects Models Required by the Syllabus

• Agenda‑setting
• Framing
• Spiral of Silence
• Cultivation
• Social Learning (Observational Learning)
• Uses‑and‑Gratifications
• Two‑step flow
• Limited effects

3. Influences on Media Content

• Ownership Structure
  • Concentration of ownership – few conglomerates control many outlets (e.g., BBC, ITV, Sky in the UK; Disney‑Fox globally).
  • State ownership – media serve governmental agendas (e.g., China Central Television, RT Russia).
  • Community / cooperative ownership – aim to serve local interests (e.g., community radio stations, local online news portals).
• Advertising and Commercial Pressures
  • Revenue dependence on advertisers influences agenda‑setting and framing.
  • Product placement and sponsored content blur editorial boundaries (e.g., “The Bachelor” product deals, influencer marketing on TikTok).
• Regulation and Policy
  • Broadcast licensing, content standards, ownership limits (e.g., OFCOM rules for UK TV, FCC ownership caps in the US).
  • Self‑regulation vs. statutory regulation – impact on censorship, diversity and data protection (e.g., EU Digital Services Act, UK Online Safety Bill).
• Technological Change
  • Digital convergence, social‑media platforms, algorithmic curation.
  • Lower barriers to entry but new forms of gate‑keeping (e.g., Facebook’s Community Standards, TikTok’s recommendation algorithm).
• Audience Factors
  • Demographics, psychographics and media consumption habits.
  • Active audiences may resist or reinterpret dominant messages (e.g., fan‑based subversive memes, YouTube commentary channels).
• Political Context
  • Government ideology, party affiliation of owners, lobbying.
  • War, elections and crises often trigger “media framing” aligned with power interests.

3.1 Traditional Media vs. New Media: Ownership & Control

4. Media Representations of Class, Gender, Ethnicity & Age

Representations reveal how media can reproduce or challenge social inequalities.

• Class
  • Reality TV often portrays working‑class participants as “entertainingly vulgar” (e.g., “Love Island” contestants).
  • News framing of welfare recipients can reinforce stereotypes of “lazy” or “undeserving”.
• Gender
  • Sexualisation of women in advertising – “body‑objectification” (e.g., cosmetics ads).
  • Under‑representation of women in leadership roles on news panels (the “glass ceiling” effect).
• Ethnicity
  • Racialised stereotypes in crime reporting (e.g., over‑representation of Black suspects).
  • Positive representation through dedicated programmes (e.g., BBC’s “Black History Month” specials).
• Age
  • Older people often shown as frail or technologically incompetent (e.g., TV adverts for “senior discounts”).
  • Youth culture depicted as rebellious or “dangerous” in tabloid coverage of festivals.

When evaluating representation, consider:

• Who produces the content and their ideological position?
• What audiences are targeted and how might they interpret the messages?
• Are alternative or counter‑representations available (e.g., independent media, online creators)?

5. Applying Theory to Real‑World Examples

Use the following structured approach in exam answers:

1. Identify the relevant theory or theories.
2. Explain the core assumptions using key terminology (see box below).
3. Link the theory to a concrete example (e.g., ownership of UK broadcasters, advertising in reality TV, OFCOM regulation, Facebook’s algorithmic feed, Netflix’s global catalogue).
4. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the theory in relation to the example.
5. Conclude by directly answering the question’s focus on ownership, control or representation.

Key Terminology (quick reference)

Agenda‑setting

The process by which media influence what issues the public thinks about.

Framing

How media present an issue, shaping interpretation and meaning.

Gate‑keeping

The selection and filtering of news or content before it reaches audiences.

Encoding/decoding

Hall’s model of how producers encode meanings and audiences decode them (dominant, negotiated, oppositional).

Glocalisation

Adaptation of global media content for local audiences.

Algorithmic curation

Use of computer‑driven formulas to select and order content for users.

Media convergence

Blending of old and new media forms and platforms.

6. Suggested Diagram

7. Quick Revision Checklist

• Can you name at least three major media theories, their key proponents and associated effects models?
• Do you understand how ownership concentration, state ownership and platform monopolies affect agenda‑setting and framing?
• Are you able to discuss the role of advertising and commercial pressures in shaping programme formats and representations?
• Can you evaluate the impact of digital platforms (algorithmic gate‑keeping, data‑driven advertising, EU Digital Services Act) on traditional media control?
• Are you comfortable using the “strengths‑limitations‑example” structure in answers?
• Can you give specific examples of how class, gender, ethnicity or age are represented in contemporary media?
• Do you understand the globalisation debates that link media ownership, content flow and cultural representation?