Globalisation and migration

Paper 4 – Globalisation: Contemporary Issues

Objective: Globalisation and Migration (Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology 9699)

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1. Globalisation – Key Concepts, Perspectives & Debates

1.1 Definition (syllabus wording)

Globalisation is the increasing inter‑dependence of societies worldwide through economic, cultural, political and ecological processes that operate at local, regional and planetary scales.

1.2 Core Dimensions

• Economic – trade, foreign direct investment, multinational corporations, global labour markets.
• Cultural – diffusion of ideas, media, lifestyles, food, fashion and language.
• Political – supranational institutions (UN, WTO, IOM), governance of borders, securitisation.
• Ecological – climate change, trans‑boundary environmental problems, climate‑driven migration.

1.3 Major Sociological Perspectives

Perspective	Core Argument	Implication for Migration
Functionalist	Globalisation creates new functions that maintain social order (e.g., global labour markets).	Migration is a rational response to labour demand and supply.
Marxist / Critical	Global capitalism exploits the Global South to enrich the Global North.	Migration is a symptom of capitalist inequality and a tool for surplus‑value extraction.
World‑Systems Theory	Core, semi‑periphery and periphery nations are linked in a hierarchical economic system.	Core states draw labour from peripheral states; migration reproduces world‑system structures.
Post‑colonial	Historical colonisation shapes contemporary flows of people, ideas and capital.	Migration patterns reflect former imperial ties and cultural hybridity.
Feminist / Intersectional	Gender, class, ethnicity and legal status intersect to shape migration experiences.	Highlights the “feminisation of migration” and gendered divisions of labour.

1.4 Core Debates (exam‑relevant)

• Benefits vs. Risks – economic growth, cultural exchange, innovation vs. exploitation, cultural erosion, social tension.
• Homogenisation vs. Hybridity – “McDonaldisation” and cultural imperialism vs. syncretic, hybrid cultures.
• Power & Governance – state sovereignty vs. supranational regulation (UN, WTO, IOM); securitisation of borders.
• Inequality – North‑South wealth gap; uneven distribution of migration benefits.

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2. Globalisation & Identity

• Transnational Identities – individuals maintain attachments to both origin and host societies (e.g., Indian diaspora in the UK).
• Diaspora Communities – networks that preserve language, religion and cultural practices while adapting to host contexts.
• Digital & Media‑Driven Identities – social media enables “virtual belonging” and online activist communities (e.g., #RefugeesWelcome).
• Hybrid Cultures – fusion of culinary, musical and fashion elements (e.g., global popularity of K‑pop).

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3. Globalisation, Power & Politics

• State vs. Non‑State Actors – governments, multinational corporations, NGOs, diaspora lobbying groups all influence migration policy.
• Global Governance – UNHCR, IOM, WTO set standards for refugee protection, labour migration and border management.
• Migration Control & Securitisation – “Fortress Europe”, offshore processing centres, biometric visas illustrate the politicisation of mobility.
• Power Imbalances – core nations dictate visa regimes; peripheral states have limited bargaining power.

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4. Globalisation, Poverty & Inequalities

• North‑South Divide – migration flows predominantly from poorer peripheral economies to richer core economies.
• Remittances – 2023 remittances to low‑income countries exceeded US$600 bn; they reduce poverty but can create dependency.
• Brain Drain / Brain Gain – loss of skilled professionals from developing countries vs. knowledge transfer and diaspora investment.
• Labour‑Market Segmentation – dual‑labour market creates a secure primary sector for natives and a precarious secondary sector for migrants.
• Intersectional Inequality – gendered wage gaps, racial discrimination and legal status intersect to shape migrant outcomes.

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5. Globalisation & Crime

• Human Trafficking & Smuggling – criminal networks exploit migration routes; estimates suggest 24.9 million people are trafficked globally.
• Transnational Organized Crime – drug, weapons and illicit‑finance flows are facilitated by global transport and digital communication.
• Cyber‑crime & Digital Exploitation – online recruitment, identity theft and ransomware targeting migrants.

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6. Media – Ownership, Control, Regulation, Representation & Effects (Migration Focus)

• Ownership & Control – concentration of media ownership (e.g., News Corp, BBC, Disney) shapes framing of migration.
• Regulation – national regulators (Ofcom UK, FCC US, EU Audiovisual Media Services Directive) and international codes (UN‑UNESCO) influence what can be broadcast.
• State vs. Private Ownership – public service broadcasters often present more balanced coverage; commercial outlets may prioritise sensationalism.
• Representation – “criminal migrant” vs. “heroic refugee” narratives influence public opinion and policy.
• Agenda‑Setting & Priming – media emphasis on border crises primes audiences to support stricter controls.
• Digital Media – platforms (Twitter, TikTok, YouTube) enable migrant self‑representation, grassroots mobilisation (e.g., #MigrantWomen) and counter‑narratives.

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7. Religion – Social Order, Change, Secularisation, Gender & Post‑modernity

• Religious Diasporas – mosques, churches and temples act as community hubs for migrants (e.g., Somali Muslim communities in Minneapolis).
• Secularisation & Pluralism – migration introduces diverse faiths, challenging secular nation‑state narratives.
• Gendered Religious Practices – women’s mobility and labour participation can be mediated by religious norms (e.g., hijab debates in European schools).
• Post‑modern Religious Identities – hybrid spiritualities and syncretic practices emerge in transnational contexts.

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8. Migration in a Globalised World

Migration is both a driver and a consequence of globalisation. Advances in transport, communication and the global division of labour lower the costs of moving, while migrants become carriers of ideas, capital and cultural practices that further integrate the world system.

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9. Theoretical Perspectives on Migration – Critical Appraisal Linked to Globalisation

Theory	Key Assumptions	Strengths	Limitations	Link to Globalisation
Neoclassical Economics	Individuals migrate to maximise income and improve living standards (rational choice).	Explains wage differentials and economic motivations.	Over‑emphasises rationality; ignores social networks and political constraints.	Reflects neoliberal global‑market discourse – treats migration as a “free‑market” adjustment.
World‑Systems Theory	Migration is a structural outcome of capitalist expansion; core countries draw labour from periphery.	Links migration to global economic hierarchies.	Deterministic; downplays migrant agency.	Highlights how global capitalist restructuring creates “push” from peripheral economies.
Dual Labour Market Theory	Developed economies have a primary (secure) and secondary (precarious) labour market; migrants fill secondary jobs.	Illuminates demand for low‑skill labour and wage suppression.	Neglects migrants’ aspirations beyond employment.	Shows how global production networks generate a secondary labour niche for migrants.
Network Theory	Social ties and migrant networks reduce costs and risks of migration (cumulative causation).	Accounts for the self‑reinforcing nature of migration flows.	May underplay structural constraints such as immigration policy.	Demonstrates how global communication technologies amplify network effects.
Migration Systems Theory	Migration results from complex interactions between sending and receiving societies – policies, economies, cultures.	Integrates multiple levels of analysis.	Broad; difficult to operationalise empirically.	Embeds migration within the wider global system of institutions, trade agreements and cultural exchanges.

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10. Push‑ and Pull‑Factors – Connected to Global Structural Forces

Factor Type	Examples	Global Structural Link
Economic Push	Unemployment, low wages, structural‑adjustment programmes.	Neoliberal policies, de‑industrialisation in peripheral economies.
Economic Pull	Higher wages, labour shortages, demand for low‑skill work.	Global supply‑chain re‑organisation, off‑shoring, demographic ageing in core states.
Political Push	Conflict, persecution, weak governance.	State failure, post‑colonial power vacuums, external interventions.
Political Pull	Stable democracies, generous asylum policies.	International human‑rights regimes, EU freedom of movement.
Social/Cultural Push	Gender discrimination, limited education, family breakdown.	Patriarchal norms reinforced by traditional economies; limited social mobility in peripheries.
Social/Cultural Pull	Family reunification, diaspora communities, perceived openness.	Transnational networks facilitated by digital communication.
Environmental Push	Natural disasters, sea‑level rise, desertification.	Climate change driven by global carbon emissions, unequal adaptation capacity.
Environmental Pull	Safer environments, better infrastructure.	Higher‑income nations investing in climate resilience.

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11. Impacts of Migration

11.1 Economic Impacts

1. Remittances – vital foreign‑exchange inflows; can reduce poverty but may create dependency.
2. Labour‑Market Effects – fill skill shortages; may depress wages in low‑skill sectors; encourage occupational segregation.
3. Entrepreneurship & Innovation – migrant‑owned businesses stimulate local economies and foster cultural products (e.g., ethnic food markets).
4. Fiscal Contributions – taxes paid versus public‑service costs; varies by legal status and skill level.

11.2 Social & Cultural Impacts

• Multiculturalism & Hybrid Identities – enriches cultural life; can generate identity tension and debates over “national culture”.
• Family & Gender Dynamics – transnational families negotiate care, remittance responsibilities, and gender‑role shifts.
• Education & Language – access to new educational systems; language acquisition improves integration but may lead to loss of heritage languages.
• Religion & Community Cohesion – faith‑based organisations provide support networks; can be sites of inter‑faith dialogue or conflict.

11.3 Political Impacts

• Policy Debates – immigration control, asylum procedures, integration programmes.
• Citizenship & Rights – legal status, naturalisation pathways, political participation (e.g., voting rights for EU citizens in the UK pre‑Brexit).
• Transnational Politics – diaspora lobbying, remittance‑driven influence on home‑country elections.

11.4 Crime & Security Impacts

• Rise in human‑trafficking routes; increased border policing.
• Cyber‑crime targeting migrants (identity theft, fraud).
• Debates over the “criminalisation” of irregular migration.

11.5 Media & Representation Impacts

• Framing of migrants influences public attitudes and policy (e.g., “refugee crisis” vs. “humanitarian welcome”).
• Social media empowers self‑representation and counter‑narratives.

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12. Contemporary Issues (Explicitly Linked to Globalisation Concepts)

• Refugee & Asylum Crises – Syrian, Afghan and Ukrainian displacement illustrate how global conflict, geopolitical interventions and international human‑rights regimes generate massive cross‑border flows.
• Brain Drain vs. Brain Gain – loss of health workers from Sub‑Saharan Africa reflects global demand for skilled labour; diaspora‑led tele‑medicine shows knowledge circulation within a global network.
• Irregular Migration & Smuggling – dangerous Mediterranean crossings are enabled by global transport networks; “Fortress Europe” is a political response to perceived loss of sovereignty in a globalised world.
• Brexit & Changing EU Mobility – end of free movement demonstrates the tension between national sovereignty and economic inter‑dependence; new points‑based system reshapes labour‑market segmentation.
• Climate Migration – displacement from low‑lying Pacific islands highlights ecological globalisation and the current gap in international legal protection.
• Digital‑Nomad Visas – Estonia, Barbados and others offer remote‑work permits, creating a high‑skill, location‑independent migrant class linked to the digital economy.
• COVID‑19 Pandemic – border closures and health‑related migration restrictions show how global health crises can rapidly re‑configure mobility regimes.
• Gig‑Economy Migration – platform‑based work (Uber, Deliveroo) attracts migrants to flexible, precarious jobs in global cities, illustrating the secondary labour market in a digital age.

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13. Evaluation & Critical Perspectives

1. Agency vs. Structure – Do migrants act as rational agents responding to global market forces, or are they primarily shaped by structural inequalities?
2. Globalisation as a Driver of Inequality – While global flows can generate wealth, they also reinforce North‑South disparities and create new forms of marginalisation.
3. Policy Effectiveness – Assess whether supranational governance (UNHCR, IOM) or national securitisation better addresses the challenges of migration in a globalised world.
4. Media Influence – Evaluate the extent to which media framing shapes public opinion and policy, considering ownership, regulation and digital counter‑narratives.
5. Sustainability of Remittances – Are remittances a long‑term development strategy or a “dependency trap” for sending countries?
6. Future Directions – Consider emerging trends such as AI‑mediated recruitment, climate‑induced displacement, and the rise of “micro‑migration” within regional economic blocs.