Globalisation and crime

Cambridge A‑Level Sociology 9699 – Paper 4: Globalisation, Media & Religion

Objective

Provide an exam‑ready, syllabus‑aligned overview of the three required strands – Globalisation (including crime), Media, and Religion – with key concepts, theories, contemporary issues, case studies, evaluation and revision points.

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1. GLOBALISATION – PERSPECTIVES, CONCEPTS & CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

1.1 Globalisation – Perspectives & Concepts (as listed in the syllabus)

• Power & Politics – role of global institutions (UN, WTO, IMF, World Bank) and hegemonic states; how state sovereignty is reshaped.
• Poverty & Inequalities – “race‑to‑the‑bottom” labour standards, widening global wealth gap, but also potential for poverty reduction through foreign investment.
• Migration – push (conflict, environmental stress, low wages) and pull (jobs, education, family reunification) factors; remittances, brain‑drain, transnational families.
• Identity – cultural hybridity, glocalisation, emergence of transnational and hybrid religious identities.

1.2 Globalisation – Contemporary Issues (exam‑focused table)

Issue	Global Driver(s)	Typical Impact	Policy / Response
Globalisation & Crime	Liberalised trade, digital connectivity, porous borders	Growth of transnational organised crime, corruption, public‑trust erosion	International conventions (UNODC), joint policing, AML legislation
Climate Change & Environmental Crime	Global demand for resources, weak regulation in some states	Deforestation, wildlife loss, health hazards	CITES, Paris Agreement, cross‑border enforcement
Digital Divide & Cyber‑Security	Internet expansion, unequal access to technology	Vulnerability of low‑income groups, data‑theft, ransomware	Budapest Convention, national cyber‑units, capacity‑building
Global Health Pandemics	Rapid travel, global supply chains	Cross‑border disease spread, economic disruption	WHO International Health Regulations, vaccine‑sharing schemes
International Terrorism	Online radicalisation, transnational networks	Security threats, refugee flows	UN Counter‑Terrorism Strategy, intelligence sharing

1.3 Globalisation & Crime – Core Types of Transnational Crime

Crime Type	Key Drivers (linked to globalisation)	Typical Impact	Policy Response
Drug Trafficking	Market liberalisation, porous borders, high demand in affluent societies	Health crises, violent crime, corruption of officials	UNODC conventions, interdiction, demand‑reduction programmes
Human Trafficking & Smuggling	Labour demand, migration flows, weak enforcement	Exploitation, loss of human rights, social destabilisation	Palermo Protocol, victim‑support services, cross‑border task forces
Money Laundering	Financial liberalisation, offshore centres, digital payments	Erosion of financial integrity, funding of other crimes	FATF standards, AML legislation, beneficial‑owner registers
Cyber‑Crime	Internet expansion, cloud computing, anonymity tools	Data breaches, financial loss, national‑security threats	Budapest Convention, cyber‑security units, public‑private partnerships
Environmental Crime	Global demand for timber, minerals, wildlife; weak regulation	Deforestation, species extinction, climate impact	CITES, Interpol Environmental Crime Programme, satellite monitoring

1.4 Theoretical Explanations for Globalised Crime

1. Conflict Theory – global capitalism creates structural inequalities; organised crime exploits power differentials for profit.
2. Functionalist Perspective – crime is a dysfunction of global systems; law‑enforcement restores social equilibrium.
3. Globalisation Theory (Sociological) – transnational networks erode state sovereignty and diffuse criminal cultures.
4. Routine Activity Theory (adapted) – increased mobility and digital connectivity raise the convergence of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and lack of capable guardianship.

1.5 Drivers of Globalised Crime (linked to the four globalisation perspectives)

• Power & Politics: weak governance, corruption, limited capacity in some states.
• Poverty & Inequalities: economic marginalisation creates “supply” of low‑paid labour for illicit markets.
• Migration: high mobility of people and goods facilitates smuggling routes.
• Identity & Culture: transnational criminal sub‑cultures, online recruitment.
• Technological advances (Internet, mobile banking, blockchain).
• High demand for illicit goods/services in wealthy societies.

1.6 Impacts on Society

• Social: erosion of trust in institutions; victimisation of marginalised groups; community destabilisation.
• Economic: revenue loss, increased security costs, distortion of legitimate markets.
• Political: threats to state sovereignty; potential for corruption of officials; pressure for stricter legislation.
• Health: spread of disease (e.g., via drug use), mental‑health trauma for victims.

1.7 Case Study – Cyber‑Crime Surge During the COVID‑19 Pandemic (2020‑2022)

• Phishing attacks rose 350 % globally (ITU data).
• Ransomware targeted hospitals, causing treatment delays and diverting resources.
• Europol’s “No More Ransom” campaign helped reduce successful attacks by 12 % in 2023.
• Illustrates how digital connectivity (a globalisation driver) created new crime opportunities while exposing weaknesses in international legal frameworks.

1.8 Evaluation – Strengths & Limitations of Current Responses to Globalised Crime

Strengths

• International treaties provide a common legal framework (UNODC, FATF, Budapest Convention).
• Multilateral agencies (INTERPOL, UNODC, World Bank) facilitate information sharing and capacity‑building.
• Advanced technologies (data analytics, blockchain tracing, satellite monitoring) improve detection and disruption.

Limitations

• Jurisdictional challenges – crimes often span multiple legal systems.
• Resource disparities – developing states lack sophisticated enforcement capacity.
• Rapid evolution of criminal techniques outpaces legislation.
• Risk of “securitisation” that may infringe civil liberties and marginalise vulnerable groups.

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2. MEDIA – OWNERSHIP, CONTROL, REPRESENTATION & EFFECTS

2.1 Media Ownership and Control (syllabus wording)

• Concentration of Ownership – a handful of multinational corporations dominate TV, newspaper and digital platforms (e.g., Disney, Comcast, News Corp). Leads to homogenisation of content and potential agenda‑setting.
• State vs. Private Media – state‑run outlets can act as propaganda tools; private media are driven by commercial imperatives and advertising pressure.
• Regulatory Frameworks – media laws, licensing and antitrust policies aim to preserve pluralism (e.g., UK’s Ofcom, US FCC). Effectiveness varies across regions, especially with global digital platforms.

2.2 Media Representations (class, gender, ethnicity, age)

• Encoding/Decoding Model (Stuart Hall) – media encode meanings; audiences decode based on cultural background (dominant, negotiated, oppositional readings).
• Class – portrayals often link poverty with crime or “undeserving” welfare recipients.
• Gender – stereotypical gender roles; women frequently shown as victims or objects of desire.
• Ethnicity – minority groups may be over‑represented in crime news, reinforcing “othering”.
• Age – youth depicted as “troublemakers” in crime stories; older people often invisible.
• Transnational Media – satellite TV, streaming services (Netflix, TikTok) spread global cultural forms, creating hybrid identities but also raising concerns about cultural imperialism.

2.3 Media Effects

• Cultivation Theory – long‑term exposure shapes perceptions of social reality (e.g., “mean‑world” syndrome from heavy crime coverage).
• Agenda‑Setting – media decide which issues are seen as important; global news often prioritises crises in the Global South.
• Social Media & Mobilisation – platforms enable rapid collective action (Arab Spring, #MeToo) but also facilitate misinformation, echo chambers and online radicalisation.

2.4 Case Study – Media Coverage of the 2022 Ukraine Conflict

• Western broadcasters (BBC, CNN) framed the war as a defence of democracy; Russian state media presented it as a “special military operation”.
• Social‑media hashtags (#StandWithUkraine) amplified citizen journalism, yet also spread unverified footage.
• Agenda‑setting impact: public opinion in Europe shifted towards increased defence spending and sanctions.

2.5 Evaluation of Media Regulation

Strengths

• Public‑service broadcasters promote pluralism and minority voices.
• Regulatory bodies can enforce standards on hate speech, accuracy and impartiality.
• Digital‑platform accountability measures (e.g., EU Digital Services Act) aim to curb illegal content.

Limitations

• Global platforms often operate beyond national jurisdiction, limiting enforcement.
• Self‑regulation may be insufficient to tackle algorithmic bias and disinformation.
• Restrictions risk censorship and can curtail freedom of expression.

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3. RELIGION – GLOBALISATION, SECULARISATION & FUNDAMENTALISM

3.1 Key Concepts (syllabus wording)

• Globalisation of Religion – diffusion of religious ideas, transnational congregations, missionary networks and online worship.
• Secularisation Theory – modernisation leads to declining religious authority and practice, though the pace varies globally.
• Religious Fundamentalism – reactionary movements seeking a return to “pure” doctrine; often transnational (e.g., ISIS, Hindu nationalist organisations).
• Religious Tourism & Pilgrimage – economic and cultural impacts of global pilgrimages (Mecca, Santiago de Compostela, Kumbh Mela).

3.2 Contemporary Issues (exam‑focused table)

Issue	Global Driver(s)	Impact	Response
Rise of Fundamentalist Networks	Internet, diaspora communities, perceived cultural threat	Radicalisation, terrorism, inter‑community tension	Counter‑extremism programmes, community policing, online monitoring
Religious Pluralism & Interfaith Dialogue	Migration, global education, NGOs	Greater tolerance, but also identity clashes	UNESCO interfaith initiatives, local council partnerships
Secularisation in the Global South	Economic development, education, media exposure	Decline in traditional rituals; rise of “spiritual but not religious” identities	Research programmes, policy on religious freedom
Commercialisation of Pilgrimage	Tourism industry, low‑cost airlines	Economic benefits for host regions; strain on heritage sites and environment	UNESCO heritage management, sustainable‑tourism guidelines

3.3 Theoretical Perspectives on Religion

1. Secularisation Theory (Modernisation) – as societies industrialise and rationalise, religious authority declines.
2. Rational Choice Theory (Religion) – individuals weigh costs and benefits; global networks increase perceived benefits (social capital, identity).
3. Conflict Theory (Religion) – religion can maintain or challenge power structures; globalisation intensifies religious competition.
4. World‑Systems Perspective – core‑periphery relations shape the spread of religious movements (e.g., evangelical Christianity from the US to Africa).

3.4 Case Study – The Global Expansion of the Hajj (2019‑2023)

• Pilgrims grew from 2.5 million (2019) to 2.8 million (2023) despite COVID‑19 restrictions.
• Saudi Arabia invested US$12 billion in airports, accommodation and transport infrastructure.
• Environmental concerns prompted the “Green Hajj” initiative (waste reduction, carbon‑offset programmes).
• Security collaboration with over 30 countries to prevent extremist infiltration illustrates the intersection of religion, globalisation and security politics.

3.5 Evaluation of Global Religious Trends

Strengths

• Transnational networks provide social support for migrants and diaspora communities.
• Interfaith dialogue can reduce xenophobia and promote peace.
• Religious tourism contributes significantly to local economies and cultural exchange.

Limitations

• Fundamentalist mobilisation can exploit global communication for radicalisation.
• Secular policies may clash with minority religious rights, creating social tension.
• Commercialisation risks commodifying sacred practices and degrading heritage sites.

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4. EXAM‑STYLE QUESTIONS (ALL STRANDS)

1. Explain how globalisation has contributed to the growth of transnational organised crime. (12 marks)
2. Discuss the effectiveness of international cooperation in combating cyber‑crime. (16 marks)
3. Using a case study, evaluate the impact of drug trafficking on a specific community. (20 marks)
4. Analyse the role of media ownership concentration in shaping public understanding of a global issue. (16 marks)
5. Evaluate the extent to which globalisation has led to the secularisation of societies in the Global South. (20 marks)
6. Using examples, discuss how religious fundamentalism can be both a cause and a consequence of globalisation. (18 marks)

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5. SUMMARY POINTS FOR REVISION

• Globalisation reshapes power relations, creates new economic inequalities, drives migration, and re‑configures identities.
• Transnational crime thrives on liberalised trade, digital connectivity and weak governance; key types are drug trafficking, human trafficking, money laundering, cyber‑crime and environmental crime.
• Theoretical lenses – Conflict, Functionalist, Globalisation, Routine Activity – help explain why crime expands globally.
• Media ownership concentration, state control and regulatory frameworks determine whose voices are heard; representation of class, gender, ethnicity and age influences public perception.
• Media effects include cultivation, agenda‑setting and digital mobilisation – both empowering and risky.
• Religion is globalising (missionary networks, online worship) while simultaneously facing secularisation pressures; fundamentalism can arise as a reaction to perceived cultural loss.
• Evaluation is essential: weigh strengths (international treaties, technology, pluralistic media) against limitations (jurisdictional gaps, resource inequality, securitisation, censorship).