Globalisation, poverty and inequalities

Paper 4 – Globalisation, Poverty, Inequalities, Media & Religion

1. Key Concepts

• Globalisation – increasing interconnectedness of societies through the flows of goods, services, capital, people, ideas and information.
• Poverty – deprivation measured as:
  • Absolute poverty – inability to meet basic physical needs.
  • Relative poverty – living below a socially‑defined standard (often expressed as a share of median income).
• Inequality – unequal distribution of resources, opportunities and outcomes within and between societies.
• Media – institutions and technologies that produce, distribute and interpret information and cultural content.
• Religion – a system of beliefs, practices and symbols that gives meaning to life and often structures social order.

2. Theoretical Perspectives on Globalisation

3. Globalisation & Identity

• Cultural homogenisation – spread of dominant (often Western) values, lifestyles and consumer brands.
• Cultural hybridisation – mixing of global and local elements (K‑pop, Afro‑beat, Bollywood remakes).
• Transnational identities – sense of belonging to more than one nation (diasporic communities, “global citizens”).

4. Migration, Remittances & Policy Responses

• Push‑pull factors – push: economic disparity, conflict, climate change; pull: higher wages, education, family reunification.
• Types of migration – labour, forced (refugees/asylum seekers), skilled “brain‑drain”, circular/seasonal.
• Remittances – a major source of foreign exchange for many low‑income countries; can reduce poverty but may create dependency and discourage local entrepreneurship.
• Policy responses – visa regimes, border controls, integration programmes, regional mobility agreements (e.g., EU free movement, ECOWAS).

5. Globalisation & Crime

• Transnational organised crime – drug trafficking, human smuggling, wildlife trafficking, money laundering.
• Cyber‑crime – hacking, identity theft, online fraud; facilitated by the rise of new media.
• Regulatory challenges – jurisdictional limits; need for international cooperation (INTERPOL, UNODC, Budapest Convention).

6. Globalisation & Poverty – Optimist vs. Pessimist Views

7. Measuring Poverty & Inequality

• Absolute Poverty – World Bank threshold US$1.90 per day (2022 PPP).
• Relative Poverty – households earning < 60 % of median national income.
• Gini Coefficient – 0 = perfect equality, 1 = perfect inequality.
• Palma Ratio – share of income of the top 10 % divided by share of the bottom 40 % (higher values = greater inequality).
• Human Development Index (HDI) – life expectancy, education and per‑capita income.
• Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) – health, education and living‑standard indicators.

8. Inequality – Within‑Country & Between‑Country

• Within‑country inequality
  • Rising Gini scores in many emerging economies (e.g., Brazil 0.53 in 2022, South Africa 0.63).
  • Skill‑biased technological change benefits high‑skill workers more than low‑skill workers.
  • Urban–rural divides: China’s urban‑rural income ratio > 2.5 : 1.
• Between‑country inequality
  • Convergence in GDP per capita for East Asian “Tiger” economies, but persistent gaps between Global North and South.
  • Palma Ratio: high‑income OECD average ≈ 1.6; low‑income sub‑Saharan average ≈ 4.5.
• “Race to the bottom” – competition among states to lower labour standards, environmental regulations and tax rates to attract investment, often widening global inequality.

9. Case Studies (Globalisation, Poverty & Inequality)

1. China’s “Opening‑up” (1978‑present)
   • GDP growth > 10 % per year (1978‑2010); extreme poverty fell from 88 % (1981) to < 1 % (2020).
   • Urban‑rural Gini rose from 0.30 (1990) to 0.47 (2020); internal migration of > 150 million rural workers.
2. Sub‑Saharan Africa
   • Limited FDI; economies reliant on commodity exports (oil, minerals).
   • Absolute poverty remains high – 40 % of the population lives on <$1.90/day (2022).
   • Within‑country Gini often > 0.50 (e.g., South Africa 0.63).
3. Latin America – Neoliberal Reforms (1990s)
   • Short‑term growth through trade liberalisation and privatisation.
   • Income inequality rose: Brazil’s Gini 0.49 (1990) → 0.53 (2000); later fell after social programmes (Bolsa Família).
4. Bangladesh’s Ready‑Made Garments
   • FDI and export‑oriented growth lifted many women out of extreme poverty.
   • Criticisms: low wages, unsafe conditions (Rana Plaza disaster 2013) – illustration of “race to the bottom”.

10. Media – Ownership & Control

• Concentration of ownership – a few conglomerates dominate TV, newspaper, radio and online platforms (e.g., News Corp, Disney‑Warner, Tencent).
• Cross‑ownership – same company owns print, broadcast and digital outlets, reducing pluralism.
• State vs. private control
  • State‑owned broadcasters (BBC, CCTV) – public‑service remit but vulnerable to political pressure.
  • Privately owned commercial media – profit‑driven; may self‑censor to protect advertising revenue.
• Regulatory frameworks – media laws, licensing authorities, antitrust legislation; vary between liberal democracies and authoritarian regimes.

11. Media – Representation & Effects

11.1 Theories of Media Effects

• Agenda‑setting – media influence what issues the public thinks about.
• Framing – the way stories are presented shapes interpretation (e.g., “immigrants as victims” vs. “immigrants as threats”).
• Cultivation theory – long‑term exposure cultivates a shared social reality (e.g., “mean‑world” syndrome).
• Uses & Gratifications – audiences actively select media to satisfy needs (information, identity, entertainment).

11.2 Representation of Social Groups

12. Media – Traditional vs. New Media

• Traditional media – newspapers, magazines, radio, terrestrial TV; one‑to‑many communication; professional gatekeeping.
• New media – social networks (Facebook, TikTok), streaming platforms (Netflix, YouTube), podcasts; many‑to‑many communication; user‑generated content.
• Implications for agency
  • Greater audience empowerment – “prosumer” culture, viral activism.
  • Algorithmic filtering can create echo chambers and reinforce existing inequalities.

13. Religion – Social Order & Change

• Religion as social cohesion (Durkheim) – shared rituals and beliefs create a collective conscience (e.g., Hindu festivals in India, Ramadan in Muslim societies).
• Religion as a source of conflict – competing religious identities can fuel sectarian violence (e.g., Sunni‑Shia tensions in the Middle East).
• Religion and social change
  • Liberation theology – Christian movements in Latin America advocating for the poor.
  • Fundamentalism – reactionary movements seeking to preserve traditional doctrines (Islamic revivalism, US evangelical politics).
  • Faith‑based NGOs influencing development policy (e.g., Catholic Relief Services).

14. Religion – Secularisation & Post‑Modernity

• Secularisation thesis (Berger, 1967) – modernisation leads to declining religious authority and differentiation of social spheres.
• Critiques / Counter‑arguments
  • Persistence of high religiosity in the Global South (sub‑Saharan Africa, South Asia).
  • “De‑secularisation” – resurgence of religion in public life (Hindu nationalism in India, evangelical influence in US politics).
• Post‑modern perspectives
  • Religion becomes one of many “lived‑experience” choices; pluralism and syncretism increase.
  • Rise of “spiritual but not religious” identities, especially among affluent youth.

15. Critical Evaluation Framework (Paper 4)

When answering exam questions, structure your response using the following lenses:

• Structural vs. Agency – Are outcomes driven by global systems (trade regimes, multinational corporations) or by actions of states, firms and individuals?
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative Evidence – Combine statistical data (Gini, HDI, poverty rates) with lived‑experience accounts (interviews, media narratives).
• Temporal Dimension – Distinguish short‑term disruptions (e.g., job loss from offshoring) from long‑term development trajectories (industrialisation of East Asia).
• Policy Implications – Assess the role of state regulation, international agreements (SDGs, Paris Agreement), and civil‑society interventions.
• Power Relations – Identify who benefits and who is disadvantaged – core vs. periphery, multinational corporations vs. local workers, dominant media owners vs. minority voices.

16. Suggested Diagram

17. Conclusion

Globalisation is a multi‑faceted process that simultaneously shapes economic outcomes, cultural identities, media landscapes and religious practices. Its impact on poverty and inequality is ambivalent – it can generate wealth and lift people out of deprivation, yet it can also entrench or widen disparities. A balanced assessment requires integrating macro‑level data, micro‑level experiences, and an awareness of the power structures embedded in media and religious institutions.