Religion and post-modernity

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Religion and Post‑Modernity

Understanding how religion adapts, persists or declines in post‑modern societies is a core requirement of Cambridge A‑Level Sociology (9699) – Paper 4 (Globalisation, Media & Religion). The notes below are organised to meet every syllabus requirement, with clear links to globalisation perspectives, media concepts and sociological theory.

1. Defining Post‑Modernity (and how it differs from Modernity)

  • Modernity: belief in progress, rationality, universal truth‑claims and a single, often secular, social order.
  • Post‑modernity: fragmentation of truth‑claims, coexistence of multiple (often contradictory) world‑views, and a heightened focus on the individual’s construction of meaning.
  • Key post‑modern features relevant to religion:
    • Pluralism – many belief systems compete for legitimacy.
    • Individualisation – people “choose” religion or spirituality like any other consumer product.
    • Reflexivity – constant questioning of traditions and authority.
    • Media saturation – digital platforms mediate religious experience.

2. Globalisation and Religion

Globalisation is a central part of the syllabus. It shapes religious belief, practice and identity through five inter‑related dimensions.

Dimension Key Sociological Perspective Post‑Modern Impact Illustrative Example
Identity Transnationalism – diaspora communities maintain “home” religious identities while adapting to host societies. Hybrid identities (e.g., British‑Pakistani Muslims who blend UK cultural forms with Islamic practice). Growth of “British Islamic” organisations that promote a distinct UK‑based Islam.
Power World‑system theory – core states influence peripheral religious landscapes through media, aid and political pressure. Religious lobbying (e.g., US evangelical groups influencing foreign‑policy on Israel). “Faith‑based diplomacy” – Vatican’s role in peace negotiations in the Central African Republic.
Poverty Dependency theory – faith‑based NGOs can both alleviate and perpetuate poverty. Post‑modern consumer spirituality fuels “faith‑based market” (charity‑shopping, “spiritual tourism”). Islamic Relief’s cash‑transfer programmes in Yemen; World Vision’s disaster response in the Philippines.
Migration Migration theory – religious networks facilitate settlement and maintain transnational ties. Digital communication allows migrants to practice religion across borders. Syrian refugees establishing online prayer groups that link camps in Greece with mosques in Germany.
Crime Conflict & deviance perspectives – religion can be a source of both moral regulation and radicalisation. Post‑modern “lone‑wolf” terrorism and hate‑crime narratives amplified by online echo chambers. Online radicalisation of individuals via extremist YouTube channels; rise in Islamophobic hate crimes reported to UK police.

3. Religion and Social Order

  • Functionalist (Durkheim): shared symbols and collective conscience generate social cohesion.
  • Conflict (Weber, Marx): religion can legitimise stratification (e.g., “divine right”) or provide a resource for resistance (e.g., liberation theology).
  • Social control: moral regulation through dietary laws, family structures, and legal influence (e.g., Sharia‑based family courts in some countries).

4. Religion as a Source of Social Change

  • Faith‑based activism: climate justice (e.g., “Faith for Climate Justice” in the UK), anti‑poverty campaigns, human‑rights lobbying.
  • Liberation theology: Catholic movements in Latin America linking doctrine with anti‑imperialism and social justice.
  • Faith‑based NGOs: Oxfam, Islamic Relief, World Vision – deliver services, shape policy and provide alternative development models.
  • Protest movements with religious participation: Black Lives Matter (church‑led vigils), Women’s March (interfaith solidarity), #MeToo (faith‑based support groups).

5. The Secularisation Debate

Position Core Argument Key Evidence (UK & Global)
Classical Secularisation Theory Modernisation → rationalisation → decline of religious belief and practice.
  • British Social Attitudes Survey 2023: 30 % identify as “no religion”.
  • Eurobarometer 2022: 23 % of EU citizens say religion is “not at all important”.
  • Church of England weekly attendance fell to 7 % (2022).
Post‑Secularism (Taylor) Religion re‑emerges as a source of meaning in a secular age; the “secular” is itself a cultural construct.
  • Rise of “spiritual but not religious” (20 % Britain, 25 % USA – Pew 2022).
  • Growth of megachurches in the US and Brazil.
  • Increased public religious activism on climate and migration.
New Atheism & Counter‑Secularisation Intellectual critique of religion co‑exists with a resurgence of fundamentalism.
  • Evangelical proportion in the US rose from 23 % (2007) to 27 % (2022) – Pew.
  • Expansion of Salafi movements in the MENA region.
  • Online “God‑talk” forums proliferate alongside anti‑religion podcasts.

Evaluation of the Debate

  • Evidence for decline: falling attendance, growth of “no religion”, secular public policies limiting religious expression.
  • Evidence for transformation: diversification of belief (new‑age spirituality, syncretic practices), digital worship communities, renewed faith‑based activism.
  • Synthesis: Post‑modernity reshapes rather than simply erodes religion; the balance varies by region, denomination and social group.

6. Theoretical Perspectives on Religion in Post‑Modernity

Perspective Core Argument Implications for Religion
Secularisation Theory Modernisation erodes religious belief and institutional authority. Predicts marginalisation of religion in post‑modern societies.
Religious Pluralism Diverse world‑views create a “marketplace of religions”. Encourages syncretic practices and consumer‑style choice of belief.
Individualised Religion (Berger) People “choose” religion like any other consumer product. Growth of “spiritual but not religious” identities and niche congregations.
Post‑Secularism (Taylor) Religion re‑emerges as a source of meaning in a secular age. New public expressions of faith (activism, media‑driven worship).
Globalisation Theories (World‑system, Glocalisation) Religion is both shaped by and shapes global flows of capital, people and ideas. Transnational religious networks, “glocal” forms of worship, and faith‑based political influence.

7. Gender, Feminism and Religion

  • Patriarchal structures: male clergy, inheritance rules, and gendered ritual spaces in many world religions.
  • Feminist critiques:
    • Highlight exclusion of women from leadership.
    • Re‑interpret sacred texts to promote gender equality.
    • Demand institutional reforms (e.g., ordination, LGBTQ+ inclusion).
  • Contemporary debates:
    • Women’s ordination – Anglican Communion, Lutheran churches, Reform Judaism.
    • LGBTQ+ inclusion – Church of England “Living in Love and Faith” project; progressive Muslim groups (e.g., Musawah).
    • Islamic feminism – reinterpretation of Sharia on marriage, inheritance and leadership.
  • Post‑modern individualisation: rise of “spiritual but not religious” women (and men) who reinterpret gendered doctrines outside institutional control.

8. Media, Religion and Post‑Modernity

Linking the media component of the syllabus (ownership, control, representation, effects) with religion.

  • Ownership & Control: Concentrated media owners (e.g., News Corp, BBC, Al‑Jazeera) decide which religious voices are amplified or marginalised.
  • Representation:
    • Televised coverage of festivals (Eid on BBC, Diwali on ITV) normalises pluralism.
    • Satirical programmes (“The Simpsons”, “The Vicar of Dibley”) shape public perceptions of religion.
    • News framing of “religious terrorism” can create a securitisation narrative.
  • Media Effects:
    • Agenda‑setting: Media focus on religious conflict elevates its salience in public debate.
    • Cultivation: Repeated exposure to “spiritual lifestyle” content (yoga, mindfulness apps) normalises individualized spirituality.
    • Digital religion: Livestreamed services, TikTok chaplains, and virtual prayer rooms create new “online congregations”.
  • Case study – #Ramadan on Instagram (2022): Millions shared personal reflections, food photos and charitable campaigns, illustrating how social media re‑configures public religious practice.

9. Empirical Evidence (UK & International)

  1. British Social Attitudes Survey 2023
    • 30 % identify as “no religion”.
    • 20 % describe themselves as “spiritual but not religious”.
    • Church of England weekly attendance: 7 % (2022).
  2. Pew Research Centre (2022) – Global Trends
    • Christianity remains largest religion (31 % of world population) – decline in Europe, growth in Sub‑Saharan Africa.
    • Muslim share projected to rise from 24 % (2020) to 30 % (2050) – driven by fertility, not conversion.
    • Rise of “unaffiliated” (15 % globally) and “spiritual but not religious”.
  3. Pentecostalism in Brazil
    • From <1 % (1970) to >30 % (2020).
    • Key drivers: charismatic worship, televangelism, promise of personal empowerment.
  4. New‑Age Spirituality (USA)
    • Combines Buddhism, Hinduism, self‑help and consumer culture.
    • Wellness industry value > $4 trillion (2023) – evidence of commercialised spirituality.
  5. Digital Worship During COVID‑19
    • Over 1 billion livestreamed services on YouTube (2020‑2021).
    • Growth of “Zoom churches” and virtual pilgrimages (e.g., virtual Hajj).

10. Evaluation: Decline, Transformation or Both?

  • Argument for Decline
    • Consistent fall in attendance at traditional denominations.
    • Increasing individualisation weakens institutional loyalty.
    • Secular public policies (e.g., removal of religious symbols from schools) limit public religious expression.
  • Argument for Transformation
    • Personalised spirituality shows religion’s adaptability to consumer culture.
    • Digital media creates new forms of community, ritual and authority.
    • Faith‑based activism demonstrates renewed public relevance (climate, migration, human rights).
    • Gender and feminist movements reshape doctrines and institutional practices.
  • Synthesis: Post‑modernity does not erase religion; it re‑configures the *forms*, *meanings* and *locations* (private vs public) of religious life. The relative weight of decline vs transformation varies across regions, denominations and social groups.

11. Suggested Revision Diagram

Flowchart – Interaction between Post‑Modern Features and Religious Outcomes

  • Features: Pluralism, Individualisation, Media Saturation, Reflexivity.
  • Outcomes:
    1. Decline of institutional religion (lower attendance, reduced authority).
    2. Rise of personalised spirituality (“spiritual but not religious”).
    3. Public religious activism (climate, migration, social justice).
    4. Gender‑focused reinterpretations and reforms.

12. Key Points for Revision

  1. Define post‑modernity and contrast it with modernity.
  2. Explain how globalisation (identity, power, poverty, migration, crime) influences religious belief and practice.
  3. Outline the main sociological theories (secularisation, pluralism, individualised religion, post‑secularism, globalisation perspectives) and their predictions.
  4. Summarise empirical data (UK surveys, global Pew/Eurobarometer figures) and illustrative case studies.
  5. Discuss religion’s dual role: source of social order (cohesion, control) and catalyst for social change (activism, NGOs, protest).
  6. Analyse gender and feminist critiques, and how post‑modern individualisation reshapes doctrines.
  7. Link media concepts (ownership, control, representation, effects) to religious visibility, digital worship and public perception.
  8. Evaluate evidence of decline versus transformation; formulate a balanced conclusion.

13. Potential Exam Questions (Cambridge A‑Level)

  • “Discuss the impact of post‑modernity on religious belief and practice in contemporary Britain, using at least two sociological theories.”
  • “Evaluate the claim that post‑modern societies have produced a ‘spiritual but not religious’ culture.”
  • “To what extent does post‑secularism challenge the classical secularisation thesis? Use examples from at least two different regions.”
  • “Analyse how media ownership and representation affect the public visibility of religion in a post‑modern society.”
  • “Explain how gender and feminist debates have reshaped religious institutions in the post‑modern era.”
  • “Assess how globalisation (identity, power, poverty, migration, crime) influences religious change in a specific country or region.”

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