Secularisation is the process by which religion loses its social, cultural and political significance in modern societies. The syllabus expects us to consider three inter‑related dimensions:
Institutional secularisation – Decline in the power and influence of religious institutions (e.g., reduced state funding, fewer clergy, closure of churches).
Cultural secularisation – De‑religionisation of values, symbols and world‑views (e.g., secular ethics in schools, reduced use of religious language in public discourse).
Individual secularisation – Decrease in personal religious belief, practice and affiliation (e.g., lower attendance, rise of “nones”, “spiritual but not religious” identities).
2. Key Theorists & Their Positions
Theorist
Key Work(s)
Position on Secularisation
Core Argument
Peter Berger (early)
“The Sacred Canopy” (1967)
Pro‑secularisation (linear decline)
Modernisation creates a pluralistic world that undermines the monopoly of religion.
Peter Berger (later)
“The Desecularization of the World” (1999)
Against a simple linear decline
Religion adapts, resurfaces, and co‑exists with secular institutions – the “desecularisation” thesis.
Steve Bruce
“Religion in Modern Society” (1998)
Pro‑secularisation
Quantitative data show falling church attendance and belief in God across much of the West.
David Martin
“The Sociology of Religion” (2005)
Mixed
Distinguishes “secularisation of institutions” from “desecularisation of belief”.
Talal Asad
“Formations of the Secular” (2003)
Against a universal model
Secularism is a historically specific construction, not an inevitable global trajectory.
3. Arguments Supporting Secularisation
Modernisation Theory – Rationalisation, scientific progress and bureaucratic organisation reduce the explanatory power of religion.
Individualisation – People increasingly make choices based on personal preferences rather than tradition, leading to “spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) identities.
Demographic Change – Lower birth rates among traditionally religious groups and higher rates among non‑religious groups shift population ratios.
Legal & Political Changes – Separation of church and state, secular education, and anti‑discrimination laws limit religious authority.
Empirical Evidence (Western Europe) – Declining church attendance, reduced belief in God, and growth of “nones” (no religion) in large‑scale surveys (e.g., World Values Survey, European Social Survey).
4. Arguments Challenging Secularisation
Desecularisation Thesis – Religion adapts and becomes more visible in public life (e.g., rise of evangelical movements, political Islam).
Global Perspective – In many non‑Western societies religiosity remains high or even increases (e.g., sub‑Saharan Africa, parts of Asia).
Religion as Identity Marker – In multicultural societies religion can signal ethnic or cultural belonging, reinforcing its relevance.
Methodological Issues – Over‑reliance on church attendance as a proxy for belief; many people practise privately or through digital media.
Post‑Secularism – Modern societies are “post‑secular”, where religion co‑exists with secular institutions rather than disappearing.
5. Comparative Evidence: Europe vs. Global South
Region
Religious Affiliation (%)
Weekly Attendance (%)
Trend (Last 30 years)
Western Europe (e.g., UK, Germany)
≈70 (affiliation) / 30 (belief)
≈10
Steady decline
Eastern Europe (e.g., Poland, Russia)
≈80 (affiliation) / 60 (belief)
≈15‑20
Mixed – some resurgence post‑communism
Sub‑Saharan Africa
≈90 (affiliation)
≈40‑50
Growth in evangelical Christianity
South Asia (e.g., India)
≈80 (affiliation)
≈30‑35
Stable/high religiosity, rise of Hindu nationalism
6. Evaluation – How Strong Is the Secularisation Thesis?
Strengths
Explains clear patterns of declining institutional religion in many industrialised societies.
Supported by large‑scale quantitative surveys (World Values Survey, European Social Survey).
Integrates well with broader sociological theories of modernisation and rationalisation.
Weaknesses
Euro‑centric bias – ignores divergent trajectories in the Global South.
Fails to account for the rise of new religious movements and the politicisation of faith.
Conceptual ambiguity: “religion” is measured in many ways (belief, practice, identity).
Potential over‑emphasis on quantitative data at the expense of qualitative insight.
Balanced View
Secularisation is not a universal, linear process but a complex, uneven transformation.
Contemporary societies may be “post‑secular” – religion persists, but its forms and functions change.
Future research should combine cross‑cultural comparative studies with digital‑media ethnographies.
7. Methods of Research on Religion
Cambridge expects you to comment on research design when evaluating arguments.
Method
What it Measures
Strengths
Limitations
Large‑scale surveys (e.g., World Values Survey)
Self‑reported belief, affiliation, attendance
Broad coverage, statistical comparability
Social desirability bias; may miss private/online practice
Example: Australian Aboriginal Dreaming ceremonies bind kin groups and transmit moral codes.
Max Weber – Religious ideas can legitimize political power and economic behaviour.
Example: The “Protestant work ethic” in 19th‑century Britain helped justify capitalist expansion and class relations.
Karl Marx – Religion functions as an ideology that masks class exploitation.
Example: Contemporary welfare‑state rhetoric that frames social support as “God’s gift” can obscure underlying economic inequality.
9. Religion as a Source of Social Change
Religion can mobilise people for reform, protest or revolution.
Liberation Theology (Latin America) – Christian doctrine used to challenge authoritarian regimes and demand social justice.
Polish Solidarity (1980s) – The Catholic Church provided organisational space and moral authority for anti‑communist protests.
Climate‑Faith Activism – Groups such as “Faith for Climate Justice” mobilise believers to demand environmental policy change.
Hindu Nationalism in India – The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and related Hindu organisations have used religious symbolism to reshape national identity and influence electoral politics.
Exam‑style practice prompt:“Assess the extent to which religion can act as a source of social change, using two examples from different world regions.”
10. Gender, Feminism & Religion
Key concepts and a broader range of faith traditions.
Patriarchal Religion – Doctrines that subordinate women (e.g., restrictions on women’s leadership in many Christian denominations, exclusion of women from the priesthood in Orthodox Judaism, and inheritance rules in certain Hindu traditions).
Feminist Critiques – Scholars such as Judith Butler, Mary Daly and Amina Wadud argue that religious texts and practices reproduce gender inequality.
Women’s Ordination Debates – Anglican Communion (1992) and the Church of England (1994) debates over allowing women priests; ongoing debates in the Roman Catholic Church.
Veil Debate (Muslim Women) – Contested meanings of the hijab in France (state ban) and the UK (rights to religious expression).
Other Faith Contexts
Orthodox Judaism – Women barred from counting in a minyan or serving as rabbis.
Hinduism – Practices such as “purdah” in certain castes, and recent reform movements advocating women’s entry into priestly roles (e.g., the first female “purohit” in 2018).
11. Religion & Post‑Modernity
Post‑modern societies are characterised by fluid, pluralistic religiosity.
High religious pluralism & syncretism – Individuals combine elements from different traditions (e.g., New‑Age spirituality mixing Buddhist meditation with Christian mysticism).
“Spiritual but not religious” (SBNR) – Personalised spirituality without formal affiliation.
Theorists
Zygmunt Bauman – “Liquid modernity” means that identities, including religious ones, are constantly reshaped and never fixed.
Anthony Giddens – “Reflexive project of the self” allows individuals to choose and re‑interpret religious narratives in line with personal life‑plans.
These ideas overlap with the “post‑secular” argument: religion does not disappear but adapts to the fluid conditions of contemporary life.
12. Globalisation, Media & Religion
How global flows and media technologies reshape religious expression and public perception.
Traditional Media – Televangelism (e.g., US megachurches) spreads charismatic Christianity worldwide.
New Media – Social‑media platforms enable online preaching, virtual worship, and rapid mobilisation of faith‑based activism (e.g., #MuslimWomenRise, TikTok “faith challenges”).
Global‑media Corporations – Netflix, Disney+ and other streaming services produce religiously themed series (e.g., “The Chosen”, “Lord of the Rings” reinterpretations) that reach worldwide audiences.
Transnational Religious Networks – World Council of Churches, the Muslim Brotherhood, and the International Hindu Union coordinate doctrine, funding and political lobbying across borders.
Media Representation – UK news often links Muslims with terrorism, influencing public attitudes and policy; conversely, coverage of celebrity chaplains can normalise religion in public life.
These dynamics can both reinforce secularisation (by exposing religious claims to critique) and facilitate desecularisation (by giving faith groups unprecedented visibility).
13. Suggested Diagram
Flowchart contrasting the “Linear Secularisation Model” with the “Desecularisation / Post‑Secular Model”. Variables shown: institutional power, cultural values, individual belief/practice. Regional arrows illustrate differing trajectories for Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Global South.
14. Key Terms to Remember
Secularisation
Desecularisation
Post‑secularism
Modernisation
Individualisation
Religious affiliation vs. religious practice
“Nones” (people with no religious affiliation)
Collective conscience
Patriarchal religion
Spiritual but not religious (SBNR)
Liquid modernity
Transnational religious network
15. Quick Revision Checklist
Define secularisation and its three dimensions (institutional, cultural, individual).
Summarise at least three theorists who support and three who challenge the secularisation thesis, noting Berger’s shift.
Quote quantitative trends for Western Europe and the Global South (affiliation, attendance, direction of change).
Explain how religion contributes to social order (Durkheim, Weber, Marx) with concrete examples.
Explain how religion can be a catalyst for social change (Liberation Theology, Solidarity, climate‑faith, Hindu nationalism).
Recall gender‑related issues across a variety of faiths (Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism).
Describe post‑modern religious expressions and link them to Bauman’s “liquid modernity” and Giddens’ “reflexive self”.
Summarise the impact of traditional media, new media, global‑media corporations and transnational networks on religion.
Identify methodological strengths and weaknesses when using surveys, ethnography, media analysis and historical documents.
Practice evaluating the secularisation argument, weighing strengths, weaknesses and a balanced, “post‑secular” perspective.
Answer past‑paper style questions using relevant evidence, sociological concepts and clear structure.
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