Social control, conformity and resistance

Paper 1 – Socialisation and Identity (Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology 9699)

1. Process of Learning & Socialisation

1.1 Key Concepts

• Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals acquire the values, norms, skills and identities needed to function in society.
• Agents of Socialisation: Institutions and groups that transmit culture (family, school, peer‑group, media, religion, etc.).
• Stages of Socialisation: Distinct phases that mark the development of self and identity.
• Theorists & Core Ideas: Classic and contemporary perspectives that explain how socialisation works.
• Link to Social Control, Conformity & Resistance: Socialisation is the primary mechanism by which societies create conformity; it also provides the resources (knowledge, skills, values) that enable resistance.

1.2 Agents of Socialisation

Agent	Primary Functions	Key Theorists / Concepts	Illustrative Empirical Study
Family	Primary socialisation; transmission of values, gender roles, early language acquisition.	Parsons (socialising function), Bourdieu (cultural capital), Berger & Luckmann (social construction of reality)	Coleman (1988) – “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital” (family‑school links and educational achievement)
School	Secondary socialisation; meritocracy, hidden curriculum, peer groups, legitimisation of authority.	Durkheim (moral education), Bowles & Gintis (correspondence principle)	Bernstein (1971) – “Class, Codes and Control” (curriculum classification & social reproduction)
Peer‑group	Identity formation, conformity vs. resistance, sub‑cultural styles.	Mead (the self), Cohen (sub‑cultures), Sutherland (differential association)	Clarke (1976) – “The Mod Sub‑culture” (peer influence on style and values)
Media & Technology	Dissemination of dominant ideologies; construction of gender/ethnic images; digital socialisation.	Hall (representation), Foucault (disciplinary power), Castells (network society)	Livingstone (2004) – “The Challenge of the Internet for Children’s Development” (media effects on socialisation)
Religion	Moral guidance, community belonging, ritual practice, meaning‑making.	Weber (religious authority), Durkheim (collective conscience)	Berger (1967) – “The Sacred Canopy” (religion as a source of social control)

1.3 Stages of Socialisation

• Primary Socialisation: Early childhood (family, early school); acquisition of basic norms, language and self‑concept.
• Secondary Socialisation: Later childhood and adolescence (school, peer‑group, media); learning role‑specific behaviours and broader cultural norms.
• Anticipatory Socialisation: Preparation for future roles (e.g., university, employment, marriage).
• Resocialisation: Deliberate learning of new norms, often in total institutions (prisons, military, rehab).

1.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Socialisation

Perspective	Key Proponents	Core Argument	Strengths	Limitations	Illustrative Study / Example
Functionalism	Durkheim, Parsons	Socialisation maintains social order by transmitting consensus values.	Explains social cohesion; highlights the positive role of institutions.	Downplays conflict and power differentials; can be overly optimistic.	Durkheim’s suicide study (social integration).
Conflict Theory	Marx, Dahrendorf, Bourdieu	Socialisation reproduces class, gender and racial inequalities.	Illuminates how power operates through culture; links to habitus & cultural capital.	May over‑emphasise structural determinism; less focus on agency.	Bourdieu’s “Reproduction in Education”.
Symbolic Interactionism	Mead, Goffman, Blumer	Identity is constructed through interaction and the “looking‑glass self”.	Provides micro‑level insight into meaning‑making; useful for everyday resistance.	Limited explanation of macro‑level patterns; can neglect structural constraints.	Goffman’s “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life”.
Feminist & Post‑colonial Perspectives	Butler, Hall, Crenshaw	Socialisation is gendered and racialised; intersectionality shapes identity.	Highlights multiple axes of oppression; foregrounds lived experience.	Risk of relativism; sometimes lacks clear methodological guidance.	Butler’s gender performativity; Hall’s cultural identity theory.

2. Social Control, Conformity and Resistance

2.1 Definitions

• Social control: Formal (laws, institutions) and informal (norms, peer pressure) mechanisms that regulate behaviour and maintain order.
• Conformity: Alignment of attitudes, beliefs or behaviours with group norms.
• Resistance: The refusal to accept or comply with dominant norms, values or expectations.
• Agency: The capacity to act independently and make choices.
• Structure: Persistent patterns that constrain or enable choices.

2.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Control

Perspective	Key Proponents	Mechanisms of Control	View of Resistance	Strengths	Limitations
Functionalism	Durkheim, Parsons	Consensus, shared values, institutions (family, school, law).	Seen as a threat to stability; limited to deviant sub‑cultures.	Explains why societies need order; clear link to social cohesion.	Under‑estimates power struggles; may legitimize oppression.
Conflict Theory	Marx, Dahrendorf, Bourdieu	Power, coercion, economic domination, state apparatus.	Resistance is a rational response to oppression; catalyst for change.	Highlights structural inequality; foregrounds agency of the oppressed.	Can be overly deterministic; sometimes neglects cultural meanings.
Symbolic Interactionism	Mead, Goffman, Blumer	Labeling, everyday interaction, dramaturgical performance.	Resistance emerges through redefinition of symbols and meanings.	Provides detailed insight into micro‑processes of conformity and deviance.	May overlook macro‑level forces; relies on subjective interpretation.
Feminist Theory	Butler, Crenshaw, Patriarchy (as a concept)	Patriarchal norms, media representations, workplace practices.	Resistance via gender consciousness, collective action and intersectional alliances.	Integrates gender, race and class; foregrounds lived experience.	Risk of essentialising groups; methodological challenges.

2.3 Classic Studies of Conformity & Obedience

• Asch’s Line Experiment (1951): Demonstrated normative influence – participants conformed to a clearly wrong majority.
  • Ethical/replication note: Minimal deception; later meta‑analyses show cultural variation in conformity rates.
• Milgram’s Obedience Study (1963): Showed that authority figures can compel compliance even when actions conflict with personal morals.
  • Ethical criticism: Deception and psychological stress; led to stricter ethical guidelines.
  • Replication: Burger (2009) replicated with reduced stress, confirming high obedience levels.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979): Conformity strengthens in‑group cohesion and self‑esteem; out‑group bias can lead to discrimination.

2.4 Forms of Resistance

1. Individual Resistance: Personal non‑conformity (alternative dress, language, lifestyle choices).
2. Collective Resistance: Organized social movements, protests, strikes, boycotts.
3. Cultural Resistance: Sub‑cultures that create alternative meanings (punk, hip‑hop, rave, e‑girl/e‑boy).
4. Everyday (Covert) Resistance: Subtle acts such as foot‑dragging, sabotage, “talking back”, or creating counter‑narratives on social media.

2.5 Additional Interactionist & Conflict‑Interaction Theories

• Labeling Theory (Becker, 1963): Deviance is a product of societal reaction; once labelled, individuals may adopt a deviant identity, but resistance can occur through “re‑labeling” or “de‑labeling”.
• Differential Association (Sutherland, 1939): People learn deviant behaviour through interaction with intimate groups; resistance can be understood as learning alternative, non‑conforming scripts.

2.6 Illustrative Case Studies

• School Discipline Policies: Uniform codes and behaviour contracts – formal control; student protests against dress‑code restrictions illustrate collective resistance.
• Workplace Surveillance: CCTV, performance‑tracking software – informal control; trade unions, whistle‑blowing and “digital sit‑ins” as collective resistance.
• Social Media Activism: Hashtag campaigns (#MeToo, #BlackLivesMatter) – digital platforms for collective resistance and identity mobilisation.
• Youth Sub‑cultures: Mods, skinheads, rave, and contemporary “e‑girl/e‑boy” styles – cultural resistance that renegotiates gender, class and ethnic symbols.
• Resocialisation in Total Institutions: Prisons, military boot‑camps – illustrate intense control; prison riots or “quiet protests” demonstrate potential for resistance.

3. Social Identity & Change

3.1 Core Concepts

• Social Identity: Part of an individual’s self‑concept derived from membership in social groups.
• Self‑Concept: The total set of beliefs about who we are (personal and social identity).
• Intersectionality: Overlapping and inter‑dependent systems of oppression (gender, race, class, sexuality, etc.).
• Identity Negotiation: Ongoing process of reconciling multiple, sometimes conflicting, identities.

3.2 Theoretical Approaches

Theory	Key Proponents	Main Idea	Strengths	Limitations	Illustrative Example
Social Identity Theory	Tajfel & Turner	People categorise themselves into groups to enhance self‑esteem; in‑group bias leads to conformity and out‑group discrimination.	Explains group‑based conformity and collective action.	Focuses on cognition; less attention to structural power.	Nationalist rallies reinforcing “us vs. them”.
Structuration Theory	Giddens	Structure and agency are mutually constitutive; individuals draw on resources to reproduce or transform social systems.	Bridges macro‑ and micro‑levels; highlights agency.	Conceptually dense; operationalisation can be difficult.	Online influencers reshaping gender norms.
Cultural Identity Theory	Stuart Hall	Identity is fluid, constructed through representation and discourse.	Emphasises cultural hybridity and change.	Less explicit about material power relations.	Diasporic music scenes re‑imagining heritage.
Intersectionality	Crenshaw, Collins	Multiple identities intersect to produce unique experiences of oppression or privilege.	Captures complexity of lived experience.	Methodologically challenging; risk of “category explosion”.	Black women’s workplace experiences differing from white women or Black men.

3.3 Identity Change Over the Life‑Course

Cambridge expects students to map identity change onto the life‑course. The table below aligns typical transitions with relevant sociological concepts.

Life‑Course Stage	Typical Identity Transition	Relevant Concepts / Theories	Illustrative Example
Childhood (0‑12)	Family‑derived gender & class identity formation.	Primary socialisation; habitus (Bourdieu).	Children adopting gendered play patterns.
Adolescence (13‑19)	Peer‑group affiliation; sub‑cultural resistance.	Secondary socialisation; symbolic interactionism; labeling.	Adoption of “goth” or “e‑boy” styles.
Early Adulthood (20‑35)	Role transitions – higher education, employment, partnership.	Anticipatory socialisation; role theory; intersectionality.	First‑job identity reshaping class position.
Middle & Later Adulthood (35+)	Retirement, grandparenting, possible identity renegotiation.	Resocialisation; life‑course perspective; structural constraints.	Retirees forming “senior activist” identities.

4. Methods of Sociological Research (Paper 1 Requirement)

4.1 Types of Data

• Quantitative Data: Numerical; analysed statistically (e.g., surveys, official statistics).
• Qualitative Data: Non‑numerical; rich, contextual (e.g., interviews, participant observation, focus groups).

4.2 Primary Research Methods

Method	Purpose	Strengths	Limitations	Real‑World Example
Surveys (questionnaires)	Collect large‑scale data on attitudes, behaviours.	Standardised, easy to compare, cost‑effective.	Superficial answers, low response rates, social desirability bias.	British Social Attitudes Survey (BSA) – quantitative trends in public opinion.
Interviews (structured, semi‑structured, unstructured)	Explore meanings, experiences, motivations.	Depth of insight, flexibility.	Time‑consuming, interviewer bias, limited generalisability.	In‑depth interviews with former prisoners about resistance in prison.
Participant Observation	Observe behaviour in natural settings.	Contextual understanding; captures non‑verbal data.	Observer effect, ethical concerns, lengthy fieldwork.	Ethnography of a rave sub‑culture (e.g., Thornton, 1995).
Experiments (lab or field)	Test causal relationships under controlled conditions.	High internal validity; ability to isolate variables.	Low ecological validity; ethical constraints.	Field experiment on conformity in a shopping mall (Cialdini, 1990).

4.3 Matching Methods to Research Question Types

Research Question Type	Most Suitable Method(s)	Rationale
Exploratory – “What meanings do young people attach to street art?”	In‑depth interviews; participant observation.	Requires rich, interpretive data.
Descriptive – “How many students support the school uniform policy?”	Surveys (questionnaire).	Provides numerical prevalence.
Comparative – “Do attitudes to climate change differ between UK and Brazil?”	Secondary data (World Values Survey) or parallel surveys.	Allows cross‑national comparison.
Causal – “Does peer‑pressure increase likelihood of smoking among adolescents?”	Experiment (field) or longitudinal survey.	Needs control of variables or temporal sequencing.
Evaluative – “What impact did the #MeToo movement have on workplace policies?”	Mixed‑methods: content analysis of policy documents + interviews with HR managers.	Combines breadth (policy change) with depth (perceptions).

4.4 Mixed‑Methods

Increasingly expected in A‑Level essays. Use mixed‑methods when a single approach cannot answer both “what” (quantitative breadth) and “why/how” (qualitative depth) aspects of a research question. Example: a study of youth sub‑culture that analyses social‑media metrics (quantitative) together with participant interviews (qualitative).

4.5 Role of Theory & Operationalisation

Every research project should begin with a clear theoretical framework that guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions. Concepts must be operationalised – i.e., defined in measurable terms. For example, “social conformity” could be operationalised as the proportion of participants who give the majority answer in an Asch‑type line task.

4.6 Secondary Sources

• Official statistics (census, crime data).
• Historical documents, media archives, existing research reports.
• Advantages: Cost‑effective, large datasets, longitudinal coverage.
• Disadvantages: May be outdated, not tailored to the specific research question, potential for secondary bias.

4.7 Research Design Options

• Cross‑sectional: Snapshot at one point in time; useful for prevalence studies.
• Longitudinal: Follows the same participants over time; captures change (e.g., cohort studies on identity development).
• Case Study: In‑depth investigation of a bounded system (e.g., a single school’s discipline policy).
• Comparative Study: Examines similarities/differences across societies or groups.

4.8 Research Approaches

• Positivist (Quantitative): Emphasises objectivity, hypothesis testing, generalisability.
• Interpretivist (Qualitative): Focuses on meaning, context, subjectivity.
• Critical / Feminist: Seeks to uncover power relations and promote emancipation.
• Mixed‑Methods: Combines positivist and interpretivist elements to provide a more complete picture.

4.9 Key Research Issues

Issue	Explanation	Impact on Findings	Mitigation Strategies
Ethics	Informed consent, confidentiality, avoiding harm.	Unethical practices can invalidate results and lead to participant distress.	Ethics committee approval; clear information sheets; debriefing; anonymisation.
Reliability & Validity	Consistency and accuracy of measurement.	Poor reliability reduces confidence; low validity leads to incorrect conclusions.	Pilot testing; triangulation; clear operational definitions; use of established scales.
Sampling Bias	Non‑representative samples distort findings.	Limits generalisability; may over‑ or under‑estimate effects.	Random or stratified sampling; clear inclusion/exclusion criteria; report response rates.
Researcher Bias	Researcher’s values influencing data collection or interpretation.	Can skew themes, over‑emphasise expected outcomes.	Reflexivity journals; peer review; multiple coders for qualitative data.
Data Protection / GDPR	Legal requirement to protect personal data.	Non‑compliance can lead to data loss, legal action, and ethical breaches.	Secure storage, anonymisation, data‑retention schedules, obtain explicit consent for data use.
Access & Gatekeeping	Difficulty obtaining entry to sites or participants (e.g., schools, prisons).	May result in limited or biased data.	Early liaison with gatekeepers; written permissions; contingency plans for alternative sites.

5. Evaluation of Perspectives on Social Control, Conformity and Resistance

• Functionalism: Explains why societies need order; however, it can legitimize existing power structures and under‑play conflict.
• Conflict Theory: Highlights oppression and the transformative potential of resistance, yet may over‑emphasise economic determinism at the expense of cultural meanings.
• Symbolic Interactionism: Offers detailed insight into micro‑processes of labeling and everyday resistance, but can neglect macro‑level constraints.
• Feminist & Intersectional Approaches: Bring gender, race and class to the fore, enriching analysis of resistance; they sometimes face challenges in operationalising intersectionality for empirical work.
• Labeling & Differential Association: Provide useful lenses for understanding deviance as socially constructed and learned; however, they may overlook the role of structural power in shaping which groups are labelled.

6. Summary Table – Linking Theory, Method and Example

Theoretical Lens	Typical Method(s)	Illustrative Research Example
Functionalism	Surveys, secondary statistical analysis	Survey of student attitudes towards school uniform (measuring consensus).
Conflict Theory	Interviews, participant observation, comparative case studies	Ethnography of a prison riot (examining power relations).
Symbolic Interactionism	In‑depth interviews, observation of everyday interactions	Study of labeling processes in a school anti‑bullying programme.
Feminist / Intersectional	Mixed‑methods: surveys + focus groups	Analysis of #MeToo narratives across gender and ethnicity.
Labeling Theory	Qualitative interviews, content analysis of media reports	Research on how young offenders are portrayed in local newspapers.
Differential Association	Participant observation, network analysis	Study of drug‑using peer networks in a university setting.