Research issues

Paper 1 – Methods of Research

1. Types of Data, Collection Methods & Research Designs

Cambridge A‑Level Sociology expects candidates to recognise the main categories of data, the principal methods of collection and the key research designs.

Research Designs (required by the syllabus)

• Cross‑sectional study – data collected at one point in time; useful for describing prevalence or relationships.
• Longitudinal study – data collected over a period; allows examination of change and, where appropriate, causality.
• Case study – intensive focus on a single case or a small number of cases; provides depth and contextual understanding.
• Experiment (including quasi‑experiment) – manipulation of an independent variable to test causal relationships; high internal validity.
• Survey – systematic collection of data from a sample; can be quantitative, qualitative or mixed‑methods.

2. Sociological Paradigms & Their Methodological Preferences

3. Formulating Research Questions & Hypotheses

• Research question – open‑ended, focuses on “what” or “how”.
  Example: “How do teenagers use social media to construct identity?”
• Hypothesis – a testable statement linking variables (used mainly in positivist/quantitative work).
  Example: “Teenagers who spend more than 3 hours per day on social media report lower self‑esteem than those who spend less than 1 hour.”
• Good questions are clear, focused, and feasible within time and resource constraints.

4. Operationalising Variables

Turning abstract concepts into measurable variables.

1. Identify the concept (e.g., “social exclusion”).
2. Choose indicators (e.g., number of invitations to social events, self‑reported feelings of belonging).
3. Define the measurement scale (e.g., 5‑point Likert scale, count of invitations per month).
4. Clear operationalisation improves construct validity and aids reliability.

5. Data Analysis Issues

• Quantitative analysis – coding, data entry, descriptive statistics, inferential tests (e.g., chi‑square, t‑test).
  Common issues: coding errors, inappropriate statistical tests, ignoring significance levels.
• Qualitative analysis – thematic coding, discourse analysis, narrative construction.
  Common issues: researcher bias in coding, lack of systematic procedure, insufficient evidence for themes.

Both approaches require transparent documentation of the analytical process to enhance reliability and validity.

6. Research Issues – Evaluation Framework

For each issue you should be able to:

1. Identify the issue.
2. Explain its implications for reliability, validity or ethics.
3. Suggest a realistic mitigation strategy (exam‑style answer).

6.1 Ethical Considerations (BSA Code of Ethics, 2022)

1. Informed consent
   • Implication: Without consent the study breaches ethical standards and may be rejected by examiners.
   • Mitigation: Provide a clear information sheet and obtain written consent; use age‑appropriate language for school‑based surveys.
2. Anonymity & confidentiality
   • Implication: Breaches can damage trust and invalidate findings (participants may withhold truthful answers).
   • Mitigation: Assign unique codes, store data securely (e.g., password‑protected files), and report results in aggregate form.
3. Do no harm
   • Implication: Physical, psychological or social distress undermines ethical standing and may lead to data loss.
   • Mitigation: Conduct a risk assessment; de‑brief participants; provide contact details for support services.
4. Right to withdraw
   • Implication: Ignoring withdrawal rights can produce biased data and breach ethics.
   • Mitigation: Remind participants at each stage that they may stop without penalty; delete any data already collected if they withdraw.

6.2 Reliability & Validity

• Reliability (consistency)
  • Implication: Low reliability reduces confidence that findings would be replicated.
  • Mitigation: Pilot test instruments, use standardised procedures, train interviewers, and apply clear coding schemes.
• Validity (accuracy)
  • Content validity – Does the instrument cover the whole concept?
    Mitigation: Review literature to ensure all dimensions are represented; seek expert feedback.
  • Construct validity – Does the measure reflect the theoretical construct?
    Mitigation: Use established scales where possible; justify any new items with theory.
  • External validity – Can findings be generalised?
    Mitigation: Use representative sampling, clearly describe the population, and discuss limits of generalisation in the report.

6.3 Sampling Issues

6.4 Data‑Collection Method Issues

• Questionnaires
  • Implication: Ambiguous wording or low response rates affect reliability and external validity.
  • Mitigation: Pilot test items, keep language simple, use mixed‑mode distribution, and provide incentives.
• Interviews
  • Implication: Interviewer bias and inconsistent probing can threaten reliability and construct validity.
  • Mitigation: Use a semi‑structured guide, train interviewers, record and transcribe verbatim.
• Observation
  • Implication: Observer effect (participants change behaviour) and subjective note‑taking reduce reliability.
  • Mitigation: Conduct unobtrusive or covert observation where ethical, use multiple observers and calculate inter‑observer reliability.
• Secondary data
  • Implication: Out‑of‑date or irrelevant data compromise validity.
  • Mitigation: Evaluate source credibility, check date of collection, and triangulate with primary data where possible.

6.5 Researcher Bias & Reflexivity

• Issue – The researcher’s values, background or expectations may shape question wording, data collection and interpretation.
• Implication – Threatens internal validity (positivist) and credibility (interpretivist).
• Mitigation
  • Maintain a reflexive journal documenting assumptions.
  • Seek peer debriefing or triangulation to challenge personal interpretations.
  • Be transparent about positionality in the research report.

6.6 Practical Constraints

7. Balancing Issues in the Exam

1. Identify at least three relevant issues for the method given.
2. For each issue, state:
   • How it could affect reliability, validity or ethical standing.
   • A realistic mitigation strategy (e.g., pilot testing, stratified sampling, reflexive diary).
3. Link the discussion back to the chosen research paradigm where appropriate (e.g., a positivist questionnaire emphasises reliability; an interpretivist interview stresses reflexivity).

Paper 1 – Socialisation & Identity (Missing Syllabus Content)

1. The Process of Socialisation

• Primary socialisation – learning basic norms and values in early childhood, mainly through the family.
• Secondary socialisation – acquisition of role‑specific skills and attitudes later in life (school, workplace, media).

Key agents (with brief examples):

2. Social Control, Conformity & Resistance

Conformity vs. Resistance

• Conformity – acceptance of norms (e.g., students following uniform policy).
• Resistance – active or passive challenge (e.g., student protests against school rules, online subcultures that reject mainstream fashion).

3. Social Identity & Identity Change

• Key theorists
  • George Herbert Mead – the self emerges through interaction (the “I” and the “Me”).
  • Henri Tajfel – Social Identity Theory: people derive part of their self‑concept from group memberships.
• Contemporary case study – Online identity construction among LGBTQ+ youth:
  • Use of avatar choices, hashtags, and private forums to negotiate gender and sexual identities.
  • Shows fluidity of identity and the role of digital media as a socialisation agent.

4. Linking Socialisation & Identity to Research Methods

Overall Alignment – Quick Scan of the Cambridge Syllabus

Summary for Exam Preparation

• Master the distinction between quantitative and qualitative data, and know when each is appropriate.
• Be able to describe and evaluate the five research designs required by the syllabus.
• Understand the four sociological paradigms, their epistemological assumptions and the methods they favour.
• Formulate clear research questions or testable hypotheses and operationalise variables with appropriate indicators and scales.
• Identify at least three research issues for any chosen method, explain their impact on reliability, validity or ethics, and propose realistic mitigation strategies.
• For Paper 1, integrate knowledge of socialisation, conformity, resistance and identity with research methodology – e.g., show how a particular design could investigate identity change.
• Use concise, exam‑style language: define the issue, discuss its effect, and give a practical solution, linking back to the relevant paradigm where appropriate.