Cambridge A‑Level Sociology 9699 – Syllabus Notes
Paper 1 – Socialisation & Methods of Research
1.1 Process of Learning and Socialisation
- Definition: A lifelong process through which individuals acquire the values, norms, skills and identities needed to function in society.
- Agents of socialisation
- Primary agents – family, school, peer groups.
- Secondary agents – mass media, religion, workplace, state.
- Key processes
- Primary socialisation – early childhood learning of basic norms.
- Secondary socialisation – acquisition of specialised roles (e.g., professional).
- Resocialisation – adoption of new norms in a different setting (e.g., prison, military).
- Anticipatory socialisation – preparation for future roles.
- Social control, conformity and resistance
- Social control: mechanisms (formal – law, school rules; informal – peer pressure, family expectations) that maintain order.
- Conformity: compliance with normative expectations; reinforced through rewards (praise, grades) and sanctions (reprimands, exclusion).
- Resistance: active or passive opposition to dominant norms (e.g., youth sub‑cultures, civil disobedience, counter‑cultural movements).
1.2 Theories of Socialisation
- Functionalist (Parsons, Durkheim) – Socialisation transmits consensus values, creates social cohesion and prepares individuals for their functional roles.
- Marxist / Conflict – Socialisation reproduces class relations; dominant ideology serves the interests of the ruling class.
- Feminist – Gendered socialisation reinforces patriarchy and the division of labour.
- Interactionist / Symbolic Interactionist – Identity is constructed through everyday interaction, labeling and the meanings attached to symbols.
1.3 Social Identity and Change
- Definition of social identity: The sense of “who I am” that derives from membership of social groups (e.g., gender, ethnicity, class, religion).
- Identity formation involves internalising group norms, values and expectations.
- Change of social identity can occur through:
- Migration or relocation (new cultural context).
- Media exposure and globalisation (adoption of transnational identities).
- Social movements (e.g., LGBTQ+ rights reshaping sexual identity).
- Agency vs. structure – individuals may resist, negotiate or reproduce identities within structural constraints.
1.4 Approaches to Sociological Research
- Positivist (quantitative) approach – Assumes an objective reality that can be measured using statistical techniques.
- Interpretivist (qualitative) approach – Views social life as constructed meaning; seeks depth through interviews, observation, discourse analysis.
- Critical approach – Emphasises power, ideology and emancipation; combines methods to expose structural inequalities.
1.5 Research Methods
- Research design
- Quantitative: surveys, experiments, secondary data analysis.
- Qualitative: semi‑structured interviews, participant observation, focus groups.
- Mixed‑methods: integration of both to enhance reliability and depth (triangulation).
- Data collection techniques
- Questionnaires (structured, self‑administered).
- Interviews (structured, semi‑structured, unstructured).
- Observation schedules (participant, non‑participant).
- Sampling
- Probability: simple random, stratified, cluster.
- Non‑probability: convenience, purposive, snowball.
- Key research issues
- Reliability – consistency of measurement across time and observers.
- Validity – extent to which the instrument measures what it intends to measure.
- Ethics – informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, avoidance of harm.
1.6 Illustrative Study (Link to Syllabus)
Smith (2021) conducted a longitudinal survey of 1,200 UK pupils to examine how parental expectations – a primary socialising agent – influence GCSE outcomes. Results showed that each unit increase in parental‑expectation score predicted a 0.45‑point rise in average GCSE grade (p < 0.01). This study exemplifies the “process of learning and socialisation” by demonstrating a direct micro‑level mechanism through which family expectations shape educational achievement.
Paper 2 – The Family
2.1 Perspectives on the Role of the Family
- Functionalist – Provides socialisation, emotional support and economic regulation; contributes to social stability.
- Marxist / Conflict – Reproduces class inequality; unpaid domestic labour sustains capitalist production.
- Feminist – Highlights patriarchal power, gendered division of labour and the “second shift”.
- Symbolic Interactionist – Meaning is created through family interaction; roles are negotiated and re‑defined.
2.2 Diversity, Social Change and Family Forms
- Common forms: nuclear families, same‑sex couples, lone‑parent families, cohabiting partners, step‑families, blended families.
- Recent trends (UK, 2022):
- 33 % of births to cohabiting parents.
- 15 % of households are lone‑parent families.
- Impact of social change
- Changing gender norms – greater acceptance of shared parenting.
- Legal reforms – same‑sex marriage (2014), civil partnerships, parental‑leave extensions.
- Welfare and housing policy – austerity measures, right‑to‑buy, shortage of affordable social housing influencing family formation.
2.3 Gender Equality and Experiences of Family Life
- Division of labour remains gendered: women perform 2.5 × more unpaid housework than men (ONS 2023).
- Patriarchal ideology shapes decision‑making, career trajectories and health outcomes.
- Policy responses:
- Shared parental leave (up to 50 % for each parent).
- Flexible working rights (right to request part‑time, remote work).
2.4 Age, Life‑Course and Inter‑generational Relations
- Life‑course perspective – Transitions such as leaving home, marriage, parenthood and retirement are socially patterned and linked to macro‑level changes (e.g., housing market, welfare reforms).
- Inter‑generational support
- “Sandwich generation” – adults caring for both children and ageing parents.
- Informal care (grandparental childcare) and formal care (state‑provided residential care).
- Changing expectations of ageing – Active ageing, digital inclusion, later retirement ages.
2.5 Policy & Debate
- Child‑benefit reforms and universal credit – impact on low‑income families and poverty rates.
- Housing policy – right‑to‑buy, reduction in social housing stock, implications for family stability.
- Debates over marriage equality, parental rights, and the appropriate level of state intervention in family life.
Paper 3 – Education & Inequality (Full Syllabus)
3.1 Key Concepts
- Social class – Hierarchical grouping based on economic, cultural and social resources.
- Educational attainment – Highest qualification achieved (GCSE, A‑Level, degree).
- Meritocracy – Belief that success is based on ability and effort.
- Reproduction theory – Schools perpetuate existing class structures.
- Social mobility – Movement between class positions (horizontal, vertical, inter‑generational, absolute vs. relative).
- Hidden curriculum – Implicit lessons about norms, values and expectations (e.g., punctuality, obedience).
3.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Education
- Functionalist (Parsons, Durkheim) – Education sorts talent, promotes social cohesion and supplies skills for the economy.
- Conflict / Reproduction (Bourdieu; Bowles & Gintis) – Transmission of cultural, social and economic capital reproduces inequality.
- Interactionist – Teacher expectations, labeling and peer interaction shape outcomes (Pygmalion effect, halo effect).
- Neo‑functionalism (Coleman) – Schools generate social capital and foster civic engagement.
3.3 Social Class & Educational Attainment
| Social Class |
5+ GCSEs (A*–C) % |
Average UCAS Points |
University Entry % |
| Upper class |
92 |
480 |
85 |
| Middle class |
78 |
380 |
62 |
| Working class |
55 |
260 |
38 |
| Low‑income households |
48 |
240 |
33 |
Correlation between class and attainment: r = 0.68, p < 0.001
Mechanisms linking class to attainment
- Resources at home – books, internet access, private tuition.
- Parental expectations & aspirations – higher in middle/upper classes.
- School type & selection – grammar, private and academy schools attract higher‑status pupils.
- Teacher expectations & bias – Pygmalion/halo effects.
- Peer groups – academic cultures differ across class‑segregated groups.
- Economic constraints – need to work, limited extracurricular participation.
3.4 Social Mobility
- Vertical mobility – Movement up or down the class ladder.
- Horizontal mobility – Change of occupation within the same class.
- Absolute mobility – Overall rise in living standards (e.g., post‑WWII expansion of higher education).
- Relative mobility – Changes in the distribution of class positions; persistence of a “class ceiling”.
3.5 Curriculum Influences
- State influence – National curriculum, standardized testing, league tables.
- Market influence – Academies, free schools, private tutoring industry.
- Cultural influence – Dominant cultural values embedded in subject choices and assessment criteria.
- Hidden curriculum – Discipline, punctuality, conformity to authority.
3.6 Intelligence, Genetics & Educational Attainment
- Nature‑vs‑nurture debate – Heritability estimates for IQ range from 0.5 to 0.8, yet environment remains crucial.
- IQ testing – Criticised for cultural bias and for reinforcing meritocratic myths.
- ‘Genius’ myth – Media narratives that over‑emphasise innate talent and underplay structural factors.
- Policy relevance – Gifted‑and‑talented programmes, tracking, and debates over selective testing.
3.7 Ethnicity & Educational Attainment
| Ethnic Group (UK, 2023) |
5+ GCSEs (A*–C) % |
University Entry % |
| White British |
62 |
45 |
| Indian |
84 |
71 |
| Pakistani |
55 |
38 |
| Black Caribbean |
48 |
33 |
- Key factors: cultural capital, parental involvement, experiences of discrimination, school segregation.
- Illustrative study: Gill (2022) found that Black Caribbean pupils receive lower teacher expectations even after controlling for prior attainment (β = ‑0.22, p < 0.01).
3.8 Gender & Educational Attainment
- Overall gender gap has closed; females now outperform males at GCSE and A‑Level levels.
- Subject segregation
- STEM: males constitute 62 % of physics undergraduates (HEFCE 2022).
- Humanities: females constitute 68 % of arts & social sciences degrees.
- Explanations: gendered expectations, lack of role models, school tracking, societal stereotypes.
3.9 Policy Debate (Education)
- Equality of opportunity – Pupil premium, free school meals, targeted tutoring schemes.
- Equality of outcome – Proposals for free university tuition, universal childcare, universal basic income.
- Selection vs. comprehensive schooling – Ongoing debate over grammar schools, academies and the degree of social segregation they produce.
- Academies & free schools – Mixed evidence; NAO (2021) reported a modest 3 % reduction in the GCSE attainment gap.
3.10 Critical Evaluation
- Quantitative data provide robust correlations but can mask lived experiences captured by qualitative research.
- Intersectionality – class interacts with ethnicity, gender, region and disability, producing layered disadvantage.
- Digital learning – online resources may reduce some home‑resource gaps but also generate a “digital divide”.
- Policy effectiveness is contested; long‑term cultural change may be required alongside financial interventions.
Paper 4 – Globalisation, Media & Religion
4.1 Globalisation
- Definition: Increasing interconnectedness of economies, cultures and political systems.
- Dimensions
- Economic – trade, multinational corporations, offshoring.
- Cultural – diffusion of ideas, McDonaldisation, cultural homogenisation vs. glocalisation.
- Political – supranational organisations (EU, UN), transnational activism.
- Impact on inequality – “Race to the bottom” wages, emergence of a global elite, widening North‑South divide.
- Debates – Globalisation as a driver of development versus a source of exploitation and cultural loss.
4.2 Media
- Functions of media – information dissemination, social control, cultural transmission, entertainment.
- Media ownership – concentration of ownership can shape news agendas and reinforce dominant ideologies.
- Digital media – social networking sites, user‑generated content, and their role in identity formation and political mobilisation.
- Media effects theories
- Agenda‑setting – media influence what issues are considered important.
- Cultivation – long‑term exposure to media shapes perceptions of reality.
- Uses‑and‑gratifications – audiences actively select media to satisfy needs.
4.3 Religion
- Key concepts – belief system, rituals, sacred vs. profane, religious authority.
- Sociological perspectives
- Functionalist – religion promotes social cohesion, provides meaning and social control.
- Marxist – religion is an “opiate” that legitimises class oppression.
- Weberian – the “Protestant ethic” links religious ideas to capitalist development.
- Interactionist – religious identity is constructed through interaction and symbolic meanings.
- Contemporary trends
- Secularisation – decline in religious affiliation and practice in many Western societies.
- Religious pluralism – growth of minority faiths, inter‑faith dialogue.
- New religious movements – emergence of alternative spiritualities (e.g., New Age, neo‑paganism).
- Debates – Freedom of religion vs. secular public spaces; the role of religion in education and politics.