Gender, feminism and religion

Paper 4 – Religion: The Influence of Religion

Topic: Gender, Feminism and Religion (with links to the wider syllabus)

This set of notes is designed for Cambridge IGCSE/A‑Level Sociology (9699) revision. It covers all required sub‑topics for Paper 4, links each to the gender‑feminism strand, and adds the missing Globalisation and Media strands required by the 2027‑28 syllabus.

1. Key Definitions

• Gender: socially constructed roles, behaviours and identities associated with being male or female.
• Feminism: a range of theoretical perspectives that seek to understand and challenge gender inequality.
• Patriarchy: a system in which men hold primary power in political, economic, religious and cultural domains.
• Religious doctrine: official teachings, scriptures and interpretive traditions that prescribe norms and values.
• Secularisation: the process by which religion loses social, cultural and political influence.
• Globalisation: the intensification of worldwide social relations linking distant localities in terms of culture, economy, politics and communication.
• Post‑modernity: a cultural condition characterised by the fragmentation of grand narratives, the rise of individualised belief and hyper‑pluralism.

2. Globalisation – Perspectives, Identity, Power, Poverty, Migration, Crime

≈ 200 words

• Definition: Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness of societies through trade, communication, migration and cultural exchange.
• Sociological perspectives
  • Functional‑structural: Globalisation creates new social institutions (e.g., multinational NGOs) that can promote gender equality through transnational policy frameworks.
  • Conflict: It reproduces power imbalances; multinational corporations exploit cheap female labour in the Global South, reinforcing gendered poverty.
  • Symbolic‑interactionist: Identities are reshaped as people negotiate global cultural symbols (e.g., “Western” dress) with local religious norms.
• Link to gender‑feminist concerns
  • Global labour markets generate new “feminised” employment (e.g., garment factories) and new forms of exploitation.
  • Migration creates transnational families where women often become primary earners, challenging traditional gender roles.
  • Global media circulates religious discourses that can both empower (e.g., online Islamic‑feminist forums) and constrain women (e.g., viral “honour‑kill” narratives).

3. Religion & Social Order

Four sociological perspectives explain how religion contributes to social order. The gender implication of each perspective is added in italics.

• Functionalist view: Religion promotes social cohesion, provides moral regulation and creates a sense of belonging (Durkheim’s “collective conscience”). → reinforces gendered division of labour through shared rituals and moral codes.
• Conflict view: Religion legitimises inequality, reinforcing class and gender hierarchies; dominant groups use religion to maintain power (Marxist “opium of the people”). → sustains patriarchal authority and justifies women’s subordination.
• Symbolic‑interactionist view: Meaning is created through religious symbols, rituals and everyday interaction; gendered meanings are reproduced in worship and practice. → everyday religious interaction normalises gendered roles.
• Structural‑functional‑interactionist synthesis: Emphasises how religious institutions, rituals and symbols interact to produce both integration and stratification. → highlights how gendered institutions (e.g., male clergy) both unite believers and maintain inequality.

4. Religion as a Source of Social Change

• Reform movements – Liberal Christianity’s push for women’s ordination; Reform Judaism’s egalitarian prayer.
• Revivalist & liberation movements – Liberation theology in Latin America, Islamic revivalism, Buddhist “engaged Buddhism”.
• New religious movements – Provide alternative gender narratives (e.g., Raëlism, Wicca).
• Feminist activism within religions – Islamic feminism, Christian feminist theology, Hindu women’s reinterpretations of goddess traditions.

5. The Secularisation Debate (with gender links)

6. Religion & Post‑Modernity

• Fragmentation of grand narratives – individuals combine elements from multiple traditions (e.g., “New Age” spirituality).
• Individualisation of belief – personal “spiritual journeys” over institutional affiliation.
• Hyper‑pluralism – increased exposure to diverse religions leads to syncretic practices and contested gender norms.
• Implication for gender: women can negotiate multiple religious identities, but may also face new forms of control through consumer‑driven spirituality (e.g., “spiritual” self‑help markets targeting women).

7. How Religion Influences Gender Roles

Four mechanisms are commonly identified.

1. Sacred texts & interpretations – prescribe distinct male/female duties (e.g., Pauline epistles, Qur’anic verses).
2. Rituals & practices – gender‑segregated spaces (men’s and women’s prayer areas, separate rites of passage).
3. Institutional structures – clergy, leadership and decision‑making bodies are overwhelmingly male.
4. Symbolic representations – deities, myths and icons often embody masculine power, marginalising feminine imagery.

8. Feminist Theories of Religion

• Radical feminism – sees religion as an instrument of patriarchal oppression; calls for dismantling religious authority.
• Liberal feminism – seeks reform within traditions (e.g., ordination of women, gender‑neutral language).
• Post‑colonial feminism – analyses intersections of gender, religion, ethnicity and global power; foregrounds voices from the Global South.

9. Comparative Overview of Major World Religions

10. Media & Religion (new subsection)

• Ownership – traditional media (state‑run or privately owned broadcasters) often reflect dominant religious perspectives; new media (social platforms, podcasts) allow marginalised voices, including feminist religious activists, to bypass gatekeepers.
• Representation – media construct gendered religious identities (e.g., news framing of Muslim women’s hijab as oppression vs. empowerment). Visual tropes (white‑southern priest, veiled Muslim woman) reinforce stereotypes.
• Media effects models
  • Cultivation theory: Repeated exposure to gendered religious imagery shapes audience’s perception of “normal” gender roles.
  • Framing: How stories are framed (conflict, human‑interest, moral panic) influences public opinion on religious gender issues.
• Evaluation – While media can amplify feminist religious movements (e.g., viral campaigns for women’s entry to Sabarimala), it can also perpetuate backlash by sensationalising “cultural clashes”.

11. Illustrative Case Studies

11.1 Women in the Catholic Church

• Official doctrine forbids women’s ordination (Canon 1024).
• Feminist groups (e.g., Women’s Ordination Conference) invoke the Second Vatican Council’s “universal call to holiness” and early Christian women leaders.
• Impact: ongoing debates over lay leadership, theological education for women, and the role of women religious orders.

11.2 Islamic Feminism in Iran

• Post‑1979 Islamic Republic codified mandatory veiling (hijab law).
• Islamic feminists such as Shirin Ebadi reinterpret Qur’anic concepts of justice and equality, campaigning for reforms in family law and dress codes.
• Result: gradual legal changes (e.g., increased women’s participation in parliament) alongside persistent state control.

11.3 Hindu Women’s Activism in India

• Self‑Respect Movement (1930s) and contemporary Brahma Kumaris reinterpret goddess worship to promote gender equality.
• Legal victories (e.g., Supreme Court rulings on women’s entry to Sabarimala temple) illustrate the clash between tradition and feminist claims.
• Ongoing challenges: caste‑based gender oppression and patriarchal family structures.

12. Evaluation – Strengths and Limitations of Feminist Analyses of Religion

• Strengths
  • Expose hidden power relations within sacred texts, rituals and institutions.
  • Provide a framework for women’s agency, resistance and collective identity.
  • Stimulate doctrinal reform and inclusive reinterpretations.
  • Link gender inequality to broader structures of capitalism, colonialism and global media.
• Limitations
  • Risk of over‑generalising diverse traditions and ignoring intra‑religious variation.
  • May under‑play intersecting factors such as class, ethnicity, and global capitalism.
  • Some critiques are perceived as “Western” impositions, provoking defensive backlash.
  • Feminist focus on formal institutions can overlook informal practices where women exercise power.

13. Suggested Diagram

14. Revision Checklist

1. Define gender, feminism, patriarchy, religious doctrine, secularisation, globalisation and post‑modernity.
2. Explain the four sociological perspectives on religion and social order, adding the gender implication for each.
3. Describe how religion can act as a source of social change (reform, revivalist, new movements, feminist activism).
4. Outline the classic, revised and post‑secular views of secularisation and link each to gender outcomes.
5. Summarise the impact of religion on gender roles (texts, rituals, institutions, symbols).
6. Compare radical, liberal and post‑colonial feminist approaches.
7. Use the comparative table to recall gender norms and feminist responses for Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Judaism.
8. Recall at least two case studies with specific examples and outcomes.
9. Critically evaluate strengths and limitations of feminist analyses of religion.
10. Explain how media (ownership, representation, effects) interacts with religion and gender.
11. Practice essay questions linking religion, gender, globalisation and social change.

15. Sample Exam Questions

• Explain how Christianity has historically shaped gender relations in Western societies, using at least two sociological perspectives.
• Discuss the contributions of Islamic feminism to women’s rights in Muslim‑majority countries, citing specific case studies.
• Evaluate the claim that religion is a primary source of gender inequality, drawing on examples from at least two world religions and considering counter‑examples.
• Analyse the relationship between secularisation (classic or revised) and gender equality in contemporary societies.
• Assess the impact of post‑modern spirituality on traditional gender norms within a chosen religion.
• Analyse how media representations of a religious group influence public perceptions of gender roles, using a specific example (e.g., coverage of the hijab).