Perspectives on globalisation

Paper 4 – Globalisation: Key Debates, Concepts, Perspectives & Syllabus Topics

Objective

Provide a concise, exam‑focused revision resource that meets all Cambridge 9699 requirements for the Perspectives on Globalisation strand, covering identity, power, poverty, migration, crime, media and religion.

1. What is Globalisation?

Globalisation is the accelerating inter‑dependence of societies through rapid flows of:

• Ideas, values and culture
• Goods and services
• Capital and labour
• People (migration, tourism, diaspora)
• Information & communication technologies (ICT)
• Ecological impacts (climate change, resource use)

These six dimensions (economic, political, cultural, ecological, demographic, technological) form the basis of every syllabus sub‑area.

2. Major Sociological Perspectives on Globalisation

2.1 World‑Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein)

• Core: high‑tech, high‑wage economies that extract surplus.
• Periphery: resource‑rich, low‑wage economies that specialise in raw‑material export.
• Semi‑periphery: intermediate states that can move up or down the hierarchy.
• Key concepts: capitalist world‑economy, unequal exchange, dependency, hegemonic stability.
• Example: Apple’s supply chain – design in the US (core), assembly in China (semi‑periphery), mineral extraction in the Democratic Republic of Congo (periphery).

2.2 Dependency Theory (Andre Gunder Frank, Fernando Henrique Cardoso)

• Developing economies are structurally dependent on the industrialised “centre”.
• Exports of primary commodities create a “terms‑of‑trade” disadvantage.
• Key concepts: centre–periphery, unequal development, structural constraints.
• Example: Latin American coffee exporters vs. European coffee roasters.

2.3 Modernisation Theory (Walt Rostow, Ronald Inglehart)

• Linear stages of development from “traditional” to “modern” societies.
• Rostow’s 5‑stage model: Traditional Society → Preconditions for Take‑off → Take‑off → Drive to Maturity → Age of High Mass‑Consumption.
• Inglehart’s value change: materialist → post‑materialist values as affluence rises.
• Empirical support: rapid industrialisation in South Korea and Singapore.
• Criticisms: Eurocentric, ignores historical exploitation and agency of peripheral states.

2.4 Cultural Globalisation (Arjun Appadurai, John Robertson)

• Focus on global flows of media, ideas and commodities.
• Homogenisation – “McDonaldisation”, global consumer culture.
• Hybridisation / Glocalisation – blending of global and local forms (e.g., Bollywood‑style Hollywood remakes).
• Key concepts: mediascapes, technoscapes, ethnoscapes, hybridity, glocalisation.
• Example: K‑pop fans worldwide adopting Korean language and fashion while retaining local cultural practices.

2.5 Global Governance Perspective (David Held, Robert Keohane)

• Power exercised by transnational actors: NGOs, MNCs, supranational bodies (EU, WTO, UN agencies).
• States retain authority but must cooperate within regimes such as the G20, WTO dispute‑settlement system, and the Paris Climate Agreement.
• Key concepts: transnationalism, network governance, policy diffusion, neoliberal governance.
• Example: EU’s Common Agricultural Policy shaping food production in member states.

2.6 Critical / Marxist Perspectives (David Harvey, Samir Amin)

• Globalisation as a new phase of imperialism that deepens class exploitation and spatial inequality.
• Emphasis on accumulation by dispossession, financialisation and the “race to the bottom”.
• Key concepts: neoliberalism, accumulation by dispossession, uneven development, class struggle.
• Example: Land grabs in Ethiopia by foreign agribusinesses.

3. Globalisation and Identity

• Cosmopolitanism – global citizen identity that transcends nation‑state boundaries (e.g., global climate activism).
• Localisation / Nationalism – reassertion of ethnic, religious or national identities (e.g., Brexit, “Buy‑Local” movements).
• Hybrid identities – individuals negotiate multiple cultural frames (second‑generation migrants).
• Social Identity Theory – globalisation reshapes in‑group/out‑group boundaries; diaspora communities develop “global‑local” identities.
• Examples:
  • World Youth Day – global Catholic identity vs. resurgence of Islamic fundamentalism.
  • Second‑generation Turkish‑German youth blending German civic values with Turkish heritage.

4. Power, Politics & Global Governance

• Shift from a purely state‑centric system to a complex web of actors:
  • Multinational corporations (Apple, Shell) influencing policy through lobbying and investment.
  • International NGOs (Amnesty International, Oxfam) shaping human‑rights and development agendas.
  • Supranational institutions (WTO, IMF, World Bank) imposing structural adjustment programmes.
• Neoliberal governance – market‑driven reforms, deregulation, privatisation.
• State resilience – protectionist policies, digital‑sovereignty laws, “strategic autonomy” debates.
• Key debate: Are nation‑states losing sovereignty or adapting to shared governance?
• Illustrative regimes:
  • G20 – forum for coordinated macro‑economic policy.
  • WTO dispute‑settlement – legal mechanism for trade conflicts.
  • Paris Agreement – collective climate governance.

5. Poverty, Inequality & Development

• Global poverty trends: Extreme poverty fell from 35 % (1990) to 9 % (2022) (World Bank).
• Key indicators:
  • Global Gini coefficient ≈ 0.65.
  • Debt‑to‑GDP ratios in low‑income countries often > 70 %.
  • Remittance flows US $ 770 bn (2022) as a poverty‑reduction mechanism.
• Poverty‑reduction mechanisms:
  • Micro‑finance (Grameen Bank) – empowerment of women entrepreneurs.
  • Development aid (Official Development Assistance) – conditionality debates.
  • Trade‑linked growth – “trickle‑down” argument versus “growth‑plus” models.
• Perspective links:
  • World‑Systems & Dependency – core extraction sustains peripheral poverty.
  • Marxist – neoliberal globalisation creates a global “precariat” and widens the Gini gap.
  • Modernisation – assumes a universal path to development, often ignoring historical exploitation.

6. Migration, Mobility & Social Cohesion

• Push‑pull factors: conflict, climate change, labour demand, education, family reunification.
• Types of migration:
  • Labour migration (Indian IT professionals to the UK).
  • Forced displacement (Syrian refugees to Europe; Rohingya to Bangladesh).
  • Student mobility (Chinese students in the US).
  • Return migration, brain‑drain/brain‑gain dynamics.
• Policy responses:
  • EU Dublin Regulation – responsibility for asylum claims.
  • Australia’s points‑based skilled migration system – regional labour market impacts.
  • US “Diversity Visa” lottery – demographic balancing.
• Social cohesion debate: Does mobility enrich societies (cultural diversity, economic dynamism) or fuel conflict (xenophobia, welfare strain)?
• Case studies:
  • Germany’s “Gastarbeiter” programme (1960s‑70s) – long‑term integration challenges.
  • Canada’s multiculturalism policy – relatively high social cohesion scores.

7. Crime, Deviance & Global Governance

• Transnational organised crime: drug trafficking (Latin America → Europe), human trafficking, wildlife smuggling.
• Cyber‑crime: ransomware attacks on multinational firms; state‑sponsored hacking.
• International policing cooperation:
  • INTERPOL – global police alerts and coordination.
  • UNODC – drug‑control conventions and capacity‑building.
  • EUROPOL – cross‑border law enforcement within the EU.
• Effectiveness critique: limited jurisdiction, uneven resource distribution, and the “securitisation” of migration can undermine human rights.
• Marxist perspective: crime as a response to structural inequality and labour exploitation.
• Key debate: Does globalisation create new forms of deviance, or does it enable better policing through international cooperation?

8. Media and Globalisation

8.1 Ownership & Control

• Concentration in a few transnational conglomerates (e.g., Disney‑Warner‑Comcast, News Corp).
• Cross‑border mergers produce “media empires” that shape global news agendas.
• Regulation:
  • EU Audiovisual Media Services Directive – limits on cross‑border ownership.
  • Ofcom (UK) – public‑interest obligations and impartiality rules.
  • US FCC – ownership caps and the “public interest” standard.

8.2 Representation

• Class – portrayal of poverty vs. affluent lifestyles.
• Gender – evolving depictions of women’s agency (e.g., “Wonder Woman”).
• Ethnicity – shifting from stereotypical to more nuanced characters (e.g., Asian leads in Hollywood).
• Age – representation of older adults (e.g., “The Crown”) and youth cultures (e.g., TikTok trends).
• Intersectional analysis – how class, gender, ethnicity and age intersect in global advertising.

8.3 Theories of Media Effects

• Hypodermic Needle / Magic Bullet – direct, uniform effects (largely discredited).
• Two‑Step Flow – opinion leaders mediate messages.
• Uses & Gratifications – audiences actively select media to satisfy needs (information, identity, social integration).
• Cultivation Theory – long‑term exposure shapes perceptions of social reality (e.g., “mean world” syndrome).

8.4 New Media & Digital Technologies

• Social platforms (Facebook, TikTok, WeChat) as sites of cultural exchange, political mobilisation and surveillance.
• Algorithmic gatekeeping – recommendation engines influence cultural consumption.
• Digital divide: 85 % internet penetration in the EU vs. 45 % in Sub‑Saharan Africa.

8.5 Behavioural Impact

• Consumer culture – “viral” trends drive global consumption (fast‑fashion, sneaker drops).
• Political mobilisation – Arab Spring, #MeToo, climate strikes illustrate networked media power.
• Surveillance & data‑colonialism – multinational tech firms harvest personal data from peripheral users.

9. Religion and Globalisation

• Functionalist view (Durkheim) – religion provides social cohesion, shared values and collective conscience in a globalised world.
• Conflict perspective (Marx, Weber) – religion can legitimise exploitation (e.g., “divine right” of capital) or become a site of resistance (e.g., Liberation Theology).
• Symbolic interactionist view – meaning of religious symbols is renegotiated through global media (e.g., global popularity of yoga, K‑pop’s use of Buddhist imagery).
• Secularisation debate:
  • Classical thesis – modernisation leads to declining religiosity.
  • Post‑secularist critique – resurgence of religious activism (e.g., global climate protests led by faith groups).
• Gender, feminism & religion – debates over women’s ordination, reproductive rights, and reinterpretations of sacred texts in a global context.
• Religion in post‑modernity – pluralism, syncretism, and the rise of “spiritual but not religious” identities.
• Examples:
  • Global spread of evangelical megachurches via satellite TV and internet streaming.
  • Muslim‑fashion brands (e.g., Hijab‑wear) blending religious modesty with global fashion trends.

10. Key Debates (Updated)

1. Winners and Losers – Does globalisation narrow or widen global inequality?
2. Cultural Homogenisation vs. Hybridisation – Are local identities being erased or re‑imagined?
3. State Power vs. Transnational Power – Is sovereignty eroding or being re‑configured?
4. Economic Growth vs. Environmental Sustainability – Can relentless expansion coexist with planetary limits?
5. Agency of Individuals – To what extent can people shape, resist or appropriate global processes?
6. Media Influence – How do ownership structures and digital platforms affect public opinion and cultural norms?
7. Migration & Social Cohesion – Does mobility enrich societies or fuel conflict?
8. Global Crime & Governance – Are transnational institutions effective in curbing new forms of deviance?
9. Religion & Social Change – Is globalisation secularising societies or prompting new religious movements?

11. Comparative Summary of Perspectives

Perspective	Key Proponents	Core Argument	Major Criticisms
World‑Systems Theory	Immanuel Wallerstein	Capitalist world‑economy creates a hierarchical core‑periphery structure that generates persistent inequality.	Over‑emphasis on economics; downplays agency of peripheral states and cultural factors.
Dependency Theory	Andre Gunder Frank, Fernando Henrique Cardoso	Developing economies are structurally dependent on the industrialised centre, leading to unequal development.	Deterministic; struggles to explain successful development in some “peripheral” nations.
Modernisation Theory	Walt Rostow, Ronald Inglehart	Societies progress through linear stages toward modernity; globalisation spreads modern values and institutions.	Eurocentric, ignores historical exploitation and the role of power.
Cultural Globalisation	Arjun Appadurai, John Robertson	Global flows of media, ideas and commodities produce both homogenisation and hybridisation.	Conceptual ambiguity between “global” and “local”; sometimes under‑theorises power relations.
Global Governance	David Held, Robert Keohane	Transnational institutions and networks shape policy beyond the nation‑state.	May overstate NGO/MNC power and underplay state resilience and nationalist backlashes.
Critical / Marxist	David Harvey, Samir Amin	Globalisation is a new form of imperialism that deepens exploitation, class conflict and spatial inequality.	Deterministic; can under‑estimate resistance, social movements and alternative development pathways.

12. Suggested Diagram

• Centre – Local Culture (traditions, languages, rituals).
• Middle ring – Hybridised Culture (glocal products, fusion cuisines, mixed identities).
• Outer ring – Global Culture (global brands, international media, transnational norms).
• Arrows entering from all sides indicate flows of media, capital, ideas and people.

13. Revision Checklist

• Define globalisation and list its six main dimensions.
• Explain each sociological perspective: theorist(s), core concepts, strengths and criticisms; include at least two real‑world examples per perspective.
• Describe how globalisation shapes identity (cosmopolitan, localisation, hybrid), power (state vs transnational), poverty (trends, reduction mechanisms), migration (push‑pull, policy, social cohesion), crime (transnational, governance), media (ownership, representation, effects) and religion (functional, conflict, secularisation).
• Compare and contrast perspectives using the table; be ready to argue which offers the most comprehensive explanation for a given case.
• Master the eight key debates and be able to present balanced arguments for both sides.
• Practice drawing and annotating the cultural‑flow diagram.
• Answer past‑paper questions that require evaluation of two or more perspectives.

14. Practice Question

Evaluate the extent to which World‑Systems Theory and Cultural Globalisation provide complementary explanations of the impact of globalisation on developing societies. In your answer, discuss at least two empirical examples and consider the relevance of identity, power and inequality.