Globalisation, power and politics

Cambridge A‑Level Sociology 9699 – Paper 4: Globalisation, Power and Politics

1. Introduction

Globalisation links economic, cultural, political, technological and identity processes across the world. In these notes we will:

• Define the five main dimensions of globalisation.
• Explain the key syllabus debates and provide concise revision tables.
• Analyse how power is exercised by states, multinational corporations and civil‑society actors.
• Present the major sociological perspectives, linking them to poverty, inequality and the core‑periphery divide.
• Explore the media and religion components that are explicitly required for Paper 4.
• Offer a revision diagram and summary points.

2. Defining Globalisation

• Economic globalisation: integration of national economies through trade, foreign direct investment (FDI), finance and global production networks.
• Cultural globalisation: diffusion of ideas, values, lifestyles and media across borders (e.g., McDonaldisation, K‑pop, Bollywood).
• Political globalisation: growth of supranational institutions and the diffusion of governance beyond the nation‑state.
• Technological globalisation: rapid spread of ICTs that enable real‑time interaction (social media, satellite communications, cloud computing).
• Identity globalisation: formation of transnational identities (diasporic, religious, gendered, youth cultures) and the negotiation of belonging in a global context.

3. Global Governance

Supranational bodies shape, regulate and sometimes constrain global processes. The syllabus requires students to discuss the tension between state sovereignty and global governance.

• United Nations (UN) – peace‑keeping, human rights conventions, Sustainable Development Goals.
• World Trade Organisation (WTO) – rules for trade liberalisation, dispute‑settlement mechanisms.
• International Monetary Fund (IMF) & World Bank – conditional lending, structural adjustment programmes.
• European Union (EU) – single market, regulatory harmonisation, “ever‑closer union”.
• G20 & other forums – coordination of macro‑economic policy among the world’s largest economies.

Key debate: Does global governance erode state sovereignty (the “state‑globalisation” tension) or does it create new forms of shared decision‑making that can address transnational problems?

4. Key Debates in the Syllabus

4.1 Economic Debate

1. Does globalisation generate overall economic growth and reduce poverty?
2. Is wealth becoming more unequal within and between nations?
3. Are multinational corporations (MNCs) engines of development or agents of exploitation?

4.2 Cultural Debate

1. Is there a homogenising “global culture” (McDonaldisation, cultural imperialism) or a process of hybridisation and localisation?
2. How do ethnicity, religion and gender shape responses to global cultural flows?

Dimension	Homogenisation (Global Culture)	Hybridisation / Localisation
Food & Lifestyle	McDonaldisation, fast‑food chains, Western diet	Fusion cuisine, local street‑food markets adopting global trends (e.g., sushi burritos)
Music & Entertainment	Hollywood dominance, global pop idols	Bollywood’s worldwide box‑office, K‑pop’s remix of Western beats, Afro‑beat’s cross‑continental collaborations
Fashion	Fast‑fashion brands (Zara, H&M) standardising style	Traditional textiles re‑imagined in global runway shows (e.g., African prints on European catwalks)
Language	English as lingua‑franca in business and media	Rise of multilingual memes, localisation of apps (e.g., WeChat in Africa)

4.3 Political Debate

1. Does globalisation erode state sovereignty or create new forms of governance (global governance, transnational networks)?
2. What is the role of international organisations (UN, WTO, IMF) in regulating global processes?
3. How do NGOs, social movements and digital activism influence global politics?

4.4 Identity Debate

1. How do global flows affect personal and collective identities (diaspora, cosmopolitanism, religious revival)?
2. Can transnational identities challenge or reinforce existing power structures?

4.5 Poverty, Inequality & Development

• Poverty trends: World Bank data – extreme poverty fell from 35 % (1990) to 9 % (2022), but absolute numbers remain high in sub‑Saharan Africa.
• Gini coefficients: Rising intra‑national inequality in many “core” countries (e.g., USA Gini ↑ from 0.39 in 1990 to 0.48 in 2020).
• Human Development Index (HDI): Gaps between core and periphery persist despite overall improvements.

4.6 Globalisation, Migration & Crime

5. Power and Politics in the Global Arena

Power is exercised through overlapping channels that can reinforce or contest each other.

5.1 State Power

• Taxation, law‑making, welfare provision, defence, diplomatic leverage.
• Regulation of markets (e.g., competition law, environmental standards).
• Negotiation with supranational bodies and powerful MNCs – the “state‑globalisation” tension.

5.2 Corporate Power

• Investment decisions, control of global supply chains, ownership of digital platforms.
• Lobbying of international organisations (e.g., WTO, IMF) and influence over trade agreements.
• Financial resources of some MNCs exceed the GDP of small states (e.g., Apple, ExxonMobil).

5.3 Civil‑Society Power

• NGOs, trans‑national activist networks, digital mobilisation.
• Agenda‑setting through media, research, and public campaigns.
• Examples: Fridays for Future (global climate strikes), #MeToo, #BlackLivesMatter, ACT UP.

6. Sociological Perspectives on Globalisation

6.1 Functionalist / Modernisation Theory

• Views globalisation as a progressive diffusion of modern institutions that raises living standards.
• Power is seen as diffused through institutions that promote development and welfare.

6.2 Marxist / World‑Systems (Dependency) Perspective

• Core‑periphery hierarchy: capital concentrates in the “core” and extracts surplus from the “periphery”.
• Explains the poverty‑inequality debate: terms‑of‑trade, unequal exchange, and structural dependency keep peripheral economies under‑developed.
• Power resides in dominant states and multinational capital that shape global rules to protect their interests.

6.3 Constructivist / Network Society (Castells)

• ICTs reshape social structures; identities are socially constructed through information flows.
• Power emerges from control of digital networks, data, and algorithmic gate‑keeping.

6.4 Post‑colonial / Cultural Studies

• Historical colonisation continues to shape contemporary cultural and political relations.
• Power is exercised through cultural hegemony, symbolic domination and representation.
• Emphasises resistance, hybridity and the role of culture in global processes.

6.5 Feminist & Intersectional Perspectives

• Gender, race and class intersect with global economic and cultural flows.
• Power is relational – evident in gendered labour migration, media representation, and religious discourses.
• Links micro‑level experiences (e.g., women’s work in garment factories) with macro‑structures of global capitalism.

7. Comparative Overview of Perspectives

Perspective	Core Assumptions	View of Power	Key Strengths	Key Limitations
Functionalist / Modernisation	Global integration is inherently beneficial; societies converge toward similar modern forms.	Power is diffused through institutions that promote development and welfare.	Explains diffusion of technology and institutions; offers an optimistic policy outlook.	Under‑estimates inequality; neglects resistance and cultural loss.
Marxist / World‑Systems (Dependency)	Capitalist world‑system creates a core‑periphery hierarchy that generates structural exploitation.	Power resides in capital and dominant states that extract surplus from the periphery.	Highlights structural inequality, links global and local processes, explains poverty trends.	Can be overly deterministic; may downplay agency of peripheral actors.
Constructivist / Network Society	ICTs reshape social structures; identities are socially constructed.	Power emerges from control of information flows and digital networks.	Accounts for digital transformation, new forms of identity and activism.	May downplay material economic forces and class relations.
Post‑colonial / Cultural Studies	Historical colonisation continues to shape contemporary cultural and political relations.	Power is exercised through cultural hegemony, symbolic domination and representation.	Emphasises resistance, hybridity and the role of culture in global processes.	Less focused on economic structures; sometimes vague on policy implications.
Feminist / Intersectional	Gender, race and class intersect with global economic and cultural flows.	Power is relational and operates through gendered labour markets, migration regimes and media representation.	Illuminates hidden dimensions of inequality; links micro‑level experiences with macro‑structures.	Can become analytically fragmented if not integrated with broader macro‑theories.

8. Media and Globalisation

8.1 Ownership & Control

• High concentration: a handful of conglomerates (Disney, Warner‑Bros‑Discovery, Tencent, Comcast) control > 50 % of global media revenue.
• Cross‑border ownership enables MNCs to shape news agendas, advertising standards and cultural exports.

8.2 Traditional vs. New Media

• Traditional media: print, radio, broadcast TV – still dominant in many regions and regulated by national licensing bodies.
• New media: social platforms (Facebook, TikTok, YouTube), streaming services (Netflix, Spotify) – algorithmic gate‑keeping determines visibility.

8.3 Theories of Media

Theory	Key Idea	Relevance to Globalisation
Political Economy	Media are owned by profit‑driven corporations; content serves commercial and elite interests.	Explains how multinational media shape cultural flows and reinforce power asymmetries.
Cultural Studies	Audiences actively interpret and resist media messages; culture is contested.	Useful for analysing hybridisation and resistance to “global culture”.
Uses‑and‑Gratifications	People select media to satisfy specific needs (information, identity, entertainment).	Explains why diaspora communities use ethnic media to maintain identity.
Agenda‑Setting	Media influence what audiences think about by selecting topics.	Illustrates how global news frames migration crises, climate change or pandemics.
Cultivation Theory	Long‑term exposure to media shapes perceptions of social reality.	Links repeated portrayals of “terrorists” or “refugees” to public attitudes and policy.

8.4 Media Representations

• Class: Reality TV (e.g., “Made in Chelsea”) portrays affluent lifestyles as aspirational.
• Gender: Advertising often reinforces stereotypical gender roles; feminist YouTube channels provide counter‑narratives.
• Ethnicity & Race: Mainstream news frequently “other” refugees; community‑produced documentaries humanise migrants.
• Age: TikTok amplifies youth culture, creating a global teenage identity.

8.5 Media Effects

• Behavioural influence: Viral challenges (e.g., Ice‑Bucket Challenge) mobilise global fundraising.
• Public opinion: Hashtags (#RefugeesWelcome, #ClimateStrike) can shift policy debates.
• Social movements: Digital platforms enable rapid coordination of protests (Hong Kong 2019, Arab Spring).

9. Religion and Globalisation

9.1 Religion and Social Order

• Shapes law‑making (e.g., Sharia‑based legislation) and welfare provision (faith‑based charities).
• Trans‑national religious networks (the Vatican, World Muslim League) influence global policy on human rights and development.

9.2 Religion as a Source of Social Change

• Liberation theology – mobilised churches in Latin America against authoritarian regimes.
• Islamic revivalism (e.g., Muslim Brotherhood) reshaped political landscapes in the Middle East.
• New religious movements (e.g., Falun Gong) illustrate how global communication spreads dissenting spiritual ideas.

9.3 Secularisation Debate

Position	Core Argument	Evidence
Classical Secularisation	Modernisation leads to declining religious belief and practice.	Decline in church attendance in Europe; rise of “nones” in the US.
Religious Resurgence	Globalisation has facilitated the spread of evangelical Christianity, Islamism and other revivalist movements.	Growth of Pentecostal churches in Africa; expansion of global jihadist networks.

9.4 Gender, Religion & Post‑Modernity

• Debates over women’s rights in Islamic contexts (dress codes, inheritance) illustrate tensions between traditional norms and post‑modern gender equality discourses.
• Inter‑faith marriages and LGBTQ+ acceptance within religious communities highlight the negotiation of identity in a pluralistic, globalised world.

10. Suggested Diagram (Revision Aid)

Core (centre): State, Corporate and Civil‑Society actors.
First layer: Economic, Cultural, Political, Technological and Identity flows.
Second layer: Outcomes – poverty/inequality, migration, media representation, religious change, social movements.

11. Summary Points for Revision

• Globalisation is multidimensional: economic, cultural, political, technological and identity.
• Key debates focus on inequality, cultural homogenisation vs. hybridisation, state sovereignty, identity formation, poverty trends and migration‑related crime.
• Power operates through states, multinational corporations and civil‑society actors; these spheres intersect and contest each other.
• Five sociological perspectives offer contrasting lenses; the Marxist/World‑Systems view links directly to the core‑periphery poverty‑inequality debate.
• Media ownership, control, representation and effects are integral to understanding cultural globalisation and power.
• Religion remains a potent force shaping social order, driving change, and contesting secularisation narratives in a global context.
• Effective analysis links theory to empirical examples: WTO agreements, climate‑strike movements, TikTok activism, the spread of Pentecostalism, and trans‑national crime networks.