Cambridge Notes, Past Papers, Revision Questions

Cambridge A-Level Physics 9702 – Standard Candles

Standard Candles

Learning Objective

By the end of this lesson you should be able to explain that an object of known luminosity is called a standard candle and describe how it is used to determine astronomical distances.

Key Definitions

Luminosity (\$L\$): the total power emitted by an object, measured in watts (W).

Flux (\$F\$): the power received per unit area, measured in W m⁻².

Standard Candle: an astronomical object whose intrinsic luminosity \$L\$ is known independently of its distance.

Distance Modulus (\$\mu\$): a convenient way of expressing distance using magnitudes,
\$\mu = m - M = 5\log_{10}\!\left(\frac{d}{10\ \text{pc}}\right)\$
where \$m\$ is the apparent magnitude, \$M\$ the absolute magnitude, and \$d\$ the distance in parsecs.

Why Standard Candles are Important

Because the inverse‑square law relates luminosity and flux,

\$F = \frac{L}{4\pi d^{2}},\$

knowing \$L\$ allows us to solve for the distance \$d\$ from a measured flux \$F\$. This provides a fundamental rung on the cosmic distance ladder.

Common Standard Candles

Type	Typical Luminosity (Absolute Magnitude \$M\$)	Distance Range	Key Characteristics
Cepheid \cdot ariable	\$M_V \approx -5\$ to \$-7\$	\overline{0}.1 – 30 Mpc	Period–luminosity relation; pulsating supergiants.
RR Lyrae	\$M_V \approx +0.6\$	\overline{0}.01 – 1 Mpc	Old, low‑mass stars; used for globular clusters.
Type Ia Supernova	\$M_B \approx -19.3\$	\overline{10} Mpc – 10 Gpc	Thermonuclear explosion of a white dwarf; very uniform peak brightness.
Tip of the Red Giant Branch (TRGB)	\$M_I \approx -4.0\$	\overline{0}.1 – 20 Mpc	Sharp cutoff in luminosity of red giants.

Using a Standard Candle: Step‑by‑Step

Identify an object that belongs to a known standard candle class.

Measure its apparent magnitude \$m\$ (or flux \$F\$) with a telescope.

Obtain its absolute magnitude \$M\$ (or intrinsic luminosity \$L\$) from the calibrated relation for that class.

Calculate the distance modulus \$\mu = m - M\$.

Convert the distance modulus to a physical distance:
\$d = 10^{\frac{\mu+5}{5}}\ \text{pc}.\$

Example Calculation

Suppose a Type Ia supernova is observed with an apparent magnitude \$m = 15.2\$. The calibrated absolute magnitude for Type Ia supernovae is \$M = -19.3\$.

Distance modulus:

\$\mu = 15.2 - (-19.3) = 34.5.\$

Distance:

\$d = 10^{\frac{34.5+5}{5}} = 10^{7.9}\ \text{pc} \approx 7.9 \times 10^{7}\ \text{pc} \approx 257\ \text{Mpc}.\$

Limitations and Sources of Error

Interstellar Extinction: Dust can dim the light, making \$m\$ appear larger; corrections must be applied.

Calibration Uncertainty: The absolute magnitude \$M\$ is derived from nearby objects whose distances may have errors.

Intrinsic Scatter: Not all members of a class have exactly the same luminosity (e.g., slight variations in Type Ia supernovae).

Selection Bias: Bright objects are preferentially detected at large distances (Malmquist bias).

Suggested Diagram

Suggested diagram: A schematic showing the inverse‑square law, with a standard candle at distance \$d\$, emitting luminosity \$L\$, and a detector measuring flux \$F\$.

Summary

A standard candle is an astronomical object whose intrinsic luminosity is known. By comparing this known luminosity with the observed brightness, we can determine the object's distance using the inverse‑square law or the distance modulus formula. Standard candles are essential tools for constructing the cosmic distance ladder and for probing the scale of the universe.

understand that an object of known luminosity is called a standard candle