Urban structure and change: factors, changing location of activities, residential zonation

Urban Areas & Management – A‑Level Geography (Cambridge 9696)

Learning Objective

Explain how and why cities grow, how their internal structure is organised, and how sustainable development is managed. You should be able to:

• Identify the processes and causes of urban growth and the resulting hierarchies.
• Analyse horizontal and vertical urban structure, land‑use zones and the location of activities.
• Compare the classic residential‑zonation models and discuss place‑identity.
• Assess the challenges of sustainable urban development and evaluate management strategies using a detailed case study.
• Consider the implications of climate‑change adaptation, diversity, equality and inclusion in urban contexts.

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6.1 Urban Growth – Processes, Causes, Consequences & Hierarchy

Key Growth Patterns

Growth pattern	Definition (one sentence)	Typical example
Urban‑sprawl (suburbanisation)	Low‑density, outward expansion of the city into surrounding countryside, driven by housing demand and car‑dependence.	Greater London’s outer suburbs
Counter‑urbanisation	Movement of people and jobs from the city core to rural or peri‑urban areas, often for lifestyle or affordability reasons.	People moving from Manchester to the Cheshire countryside
Re‑urbanisation (inner‑city renewal)	Regeneration of declining inner‑city areas, typically through investment, gentrification or policy‑led redevelopment.	London Docklands
Edge‑city development	Creation of new business districts on the urban fringe, linked to transport corridors and decentralisation of services.	Milton Keynes (business parks)
Leap‑frog development	Discontinuous expansion where new settlements appear beyond the existing urban fringe, bypassing intermediate land.	Satellite towns beyond the Paris urban belt
Compact city growth	Intensification of land‑use within existing boundaries to limit sprawl, often promoted by sustainability policies.	Curitiba’s mixed‑use infill strategy

Causes & Consequences

• Economic shifts – de‑industrialisation, rise of services, globalisation of finance and knowledge‑based industries.
• Transport & communication – new motorways, rail links, broadband and mobility‑as‑a‑service.
• Housing demand & affordability – population growth, falling household size, desire for home‑ownership.
• Policy & planning – green‑belt legislation, zoning, regeneration incentives, tax‑relief schemes.
• Social & cultural aspirations – preference for greener environments, lifestyle amenities, safety.

Consequences include:

• Changes in land‑use patterns (e.g., loss of agricultural land, emergence of business parks).
• Increased commuting distances and pressure on transport networks.
• Environmental impacts – higher carbon emissions, loss of biodiversity, heat‑island effect.
• Social segregation – spatial concentration of wealth and poverty.
• Infrastructure strain – water, waste, energy services.

Urban Hierarchy

• Settlement hierarchy – from hamlet → village → town → city → primate city → world (global) city, based on size, functions and regional/national/international influence.
• Primate city – a single city that dominates a country’s urban system, usually having > 50 % of the national population and a disproportionate share of economic activity. Examples: Bangkok (Thailand), Lagos (Nigeria).
• World (global) city – a city that exerts a disproportionate influence on global finance, culture, politics and transport. Examples: London, New York, Tokyo.

Scale of Urban Processes

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6.2 Urban Structure & Change

Horizontal vs. Vertical Structure

• Horizontal structure – the spatial arrangement of land‑uses across the city plane (CBD, residential rings, industrial zones, green belts).
• Vertical structure – the layering of activities within buildings (ground‑floor retail, mid‑floors offices, upper‑floors residential or hotel).

Typical Urban Land‑Use Zones

Zone	Dominant activities	Typical location
Central Business District (CBD)	Finance, corporate offices, high‑value retail, major transport hub	City centre
Retail & Commercial Zone	Shops, restaurants, entertainment, services	Inner‑city & secondary centres
Industrial Zone	Manufacturing, warehousing, logistics	Often on the fringe, near motorways or rail freight lines
Residential Zone	Housing of varying density & tenure	From inner‑city flats to outer‑suburbs; often organised by income group
Green Space / Open Land	Parks, sports facilities, conservation areas, flood‑able parks	Scattered throughout; larger belts on urban fringe

Place‑Identity

Place‑identity is the distinctive character of an area as perceived by residents, visitors and businesses. It is shaped by:

• Historical heritage (old town cores, listed buildings).
• Cultural branding (e.g., “Silicon Valley”, “The Docklands”).
• Physical form (street layout, architecture, public art, skyline).
• Social reputation (safety, prestige, community cohesion).
• Diversity & inclusion (ethnic enclaves, gender‑friendly public spaces).

Strong place‑identity can attract investment, tourism and higher‑income residents, but may also fuel gentrification and displacement.

Location of Activities – Push‑Pull Factors

1. Economic restructuring – de‑industrialisation pushes manufacturing outward; service‑sector pulls activities toward CBDs and edge‑cities.
2. Transport corridors – new motorways, tram‑lines and rail stations attract retail and office development along “spokes”.
3. Globalisation – multinational corporations locate in specialised zones (free‑trade zones, tech parks).
4. Technological change – e‑commerce, telecommuting and digital platforms reduce the need for physical storefronts and large office blocks.
5. Policy incentives – tax breaks, planning‑permission fast‑track, and regeneration grants.

Residential‑Zonation Models

Model	Key features	Typical spatial distribution of social groups
Concentric Zone Model (Burgess, 1925)	City expands outward in a series of rings; each ring reflects a different land‑use.	CBD → Inner‑city workers (zone 2) → Working‑class suburbs (zone 3) → Middle‑class suburbs (zone 4) → Commuters in outer‑ring (zone 5).
Sector Model (Hoyt, 1939)	Development follows transport corridors, creating wedges (sectors) of similar land‑use.	High‑income residential sectors along attractive corridors (e.g., riverfront, parkways); low‑income sectors in opposite wedges; industrial sectors along rail/road lines.
Multiple Nuclei Model (Harris & Ullman, 1945)	City contains several specialised centres (nuclei) – CBD, university, airport, retail park, etc.	Residential zones cluster around each nucleus according to income, lifestyle and proximity to amenities; e.g., upscale apartments near a university campus, low‑cost housing near an industrial park.

Diversity, Equality & Inclusion in Urban Contexts

• Gender – safety of public spaces, access to childcare, gender‑responsive transport design.
• Ethnicity & migration – formation of ethnic neighbourhoods (e.g., Chinatown, Brixton), role of migrants in informal economies.
• Socio‑economic inequality – spatial segregation of low‑income households, informal settlements (e.g., Kibera, Nairobi) versus public‑housing schemes (e.g., Berlin’s Sozialwohnung).
• Ageing population – need for age‑friendly housing, health services, and walkable neighbourhoods.

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6.3 Sustainable Urban Development

Key Challenges & Issues

• Solid‑waste management – rising volumes, limited landfill capacity, recycling rates.
• Transport & congestion – car dependence, air pollution, need for high‑capacity public‑transit.
• Housing affordability & density – shortage of affordable homes, pressure to increase density without compromising liveability.
• Green‑space loss & heat‑island effect – reduced vegetation, higher summer temperatures, poorer air quality.
• Energy & climate change – high carbon emissions from buildings, vulnerability to sea‑level rise and flooding.
• Social inclusion – risk of gentrification, marginalisation of low‑income groups, gender‑safe public realms.

Climate‑Change‑Related Urban Adaptation (examples)

• Green roofs and vertical gardens to reduce heat‑island intensity.
• Flood‑able parks and “sponge city” concepts (e.g., Rotterdam’s water squares).
• Urban tree‑canopy programmes and street‑level shading.
• Resilient building codes that require higher insulation and renewable‑energy integration.

Management Strategies (Hard vs. Soft)

Strategy	Type	Example
Congestion charging	Hard (policy‑based)	London’s Ultra‑Low Emission Zone (ULEZ)
Mixed‑use development	Soft (design)	King’s Cross regeneration, London
Green‑belt policy	Hard (legislative)	UK Green Belt surrounding London
Urban greening & pocket parks	Soft (landscape)	The High Line, New York City
Waste‑to‑energy plants	Hard (infrastructure)	Oslo’s Refshaleøen waste‑to‑energy facility
Community‑led planning	Soft (participatory)	Neighbourhood Planning in Bristol
Heat‑island mitigation programme	Hard (policy) + Soft (design)	Melbourne’s Urban Forest Strategy
Flood‑able public spaces	Hard (regulation) + Soft (design)	Rotterdam’s Water Squares

Detailed Case Study – London’s Battersea Power Station “Garden City” Regeneration

• Context: Former coal‑fired power station on the Thames, derelict since the 1980s.
• Objectives:
  • 4 000 homes (30 % affordable).
  • 1 000 000 m² mixed‑use space (offices, retail, cultural).
  • Extensive public realm – new river‑front park, pedestrian‑friendly streets.
  • Improved transport – Northern Line extension, river bus services.
• Sustainability measures:
  • Zero‑carbon buildings (BREEAM “Outstanding”).
  • 50 % on‑site renewable energy (solar panels, heat‑recovery).
  • 30 % increase in green space, including a 10 ha river‑front park.
  • Prioritised walking, cycling routes and high‑frequency public‑transit links.
  • Inclusive design – affordable‑housing quota, community facilities, gender‑safe lighting.
• Evaluation (AO3):
  • Positive impacts – regeneration of a brownfield site, creation of jobs, new housing supply, reduction in car trips due to improved transit, enhanced place‑identity.
  • Potential drawbacks – risk of gentrification and displacement of lower‑income households, high construction costs, reliance on market‑driven developers, limited provision for informal or low‑cost housing.
  • Overall assessment – The project illustrates how hard (infrastructure, policy) and soft (design, community) strategies can combine to deliver a more sustainable, mixed‑use urban quarter. Long‑term success will depend on robust affordable‑housing safeguards, ongoing community participation and monitoring of climate‑resilience outcomes.

Gentrification – Functional Model

The intensity of gentrification (G) can be expressed as a function of private investment (I) and the demographic influx of higher‑income households (D):

\[ G = \alpha \, I^{\beta} \times D^{\gamma} \]

• α – reflects the local policy context (e.g., rent‑control, planning restrictions).
• β – responsiveness of private investment to profit expectations.
• γ – sensitivity of demographic change to amenity improvement.

Higher values of I and D, combined with a permissive α, produce stronger gentrification pressures.

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Summary Checklist (AO1)

1. List and explain the six main processes of urban growth, giving a real‑world example for each.
2. Describe horizontal and vertical structure and name the typical land‑use zones of a city.
3. Compare the Burgess, Hoyt and Multiple‑Nuclei residential‑zonation models – strengths, limitations and contexts of best fit.
4. Explain place‑identity and how it influences residential patterns and investment.
5. Identify the major sustainability challenges faced by modern cities, including climate‑change adaptation.
6. Outline at least three hard and three soft management strategies, with concrete examples.
7. Using the Battersea Power Station case study, evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies in achieving sustainable development.
8. Discuss the causes and consequences of gentrification, referencing the functional model where appropriate.
9. Explain how gender, ethnicity, age and income affect urban policy outcomes and give contrasting examples (e.g., informal settlements in Nairobi vs. public‑housing in Berlin).