Tourism: patterns, impacts, management

Optional A‑Level Global Themes – Tourism: Patterns, Impacts & Management (Cambridge 9696)

1. Introduction

Tourism is a major driver of the world economy, generating foreign‑exchange earnings, employment and cultural exchange. Although it is an optional topic for Paper 4 (“Trade, aid and tourism”), mastering tourism patterns, impacts and management links directly to core Human Geography themes (e.g., Urban areas and management, Water resources, Population dynamics) and develops the required assessment objectives (AO1–AO3).

2. Key Geographical Concepts for Tourism

• Scale: Global tourist‑origin flows → regional destination clusters → local site‑level impacts.
• Place & Spatial Variation: How physical (climate, landscape) and human (culture, infrastructure) characteristics shape tourist attractiveness.
• Change over time: Long‑term growth (pre‑COVID), pandemic disruption, post‑COVID recovery, and future climate‑related shifts.
• Cause‑and‑effect: Income growth, low‑cost airlines, digital booking → higher arrivals → resource pressure.
• Systems & Environmental Interactions: Interdependence of transport, accommodation, attractions, supply chains and natural environments.
• Challenges & Opportunities: Balancing economic benefits with environmental limits and social equity.
• Diversity, Equality & Inclusion: Distribution of benefits across gender, age, ethnicity and indigenous groups.

3. Patterns of Tourism

3.1 Global Distribution (Origin‑Destination)

• Core‑periphery model: High‑income, industrialised nations (USA, UK, Germany, Japan) are the main source of tourists; destinations are often coastal, mountain or heritage‑rich regions in the Global South.
• Regional clusters:
  • Europe → Mediterranean coasts, Alpine resorts.
  • North America → Caribbean islands, Mexico.
  • Asia‑Pacific → Southeast Asian beaches, Chinese outbound to Japan/Korea.

3.2 Demand Drivers

• Rising disposable income and middle‑class expansion (especially in China, India and Brazil).
• Demographic change – ageing populations (senior travel) and youth “experience‑seeking” culture.
• Technological advances – e‑booking, mobile apps, social‑media influencers, virtual reality previews.
• Transport innovations – low‑cost airlines, high‑speed rail, cruise‑ship mega‑liners.

3.3 Seasonality & Temporal Variation

• Summer peaks in temperate zones (Europe, North America).
• Winter peaks for ski resorts (Alps, Rockies) and tropical islands (Caribbean, Maldives).
• Seasonal swings affect employment stability, income reliability and environmental pressure.

3.4 Distance Decay & Mitigating Factors

• Tourist numbers normally fall with increasing distance, but:
  • Low travel costs (budget airlines, package holidays) flatten the decay curve.
  • Strong “push” attractions (UNESCO sites, unique wildlife) can override distance.

3.5 Types of Tourism

• Mass tourism – large‑scale, often beach‑based holidays.
• Niche tourism – eco‑tourism, cultural tourism, adventure tourism, medical tourism, heritage tourism.
• Business tourism – conferences, MICE (Meetings, Incentives, Conferences, Exhibitions).

3.6 Scale of Analysis – From Global to Local

• Global: International arrival statistics, UNWTO reports.
• Regional: Mediterranean cruise‑ship routes, ASEAN tourism corridors.
• National: Country‑wide GDP contribution, visa policies.
• City‑level (Place) example – Barcelona, Spain:
  • Annual arrivals ≈ 12 million (pre‑COVID).
  • Key attractions: architecture (Gaudí), beaches, festivals.
  • Impacts: gentrification of historic quarters, pressure on water & waste services, high‑value employment in hospitality.

3.7 Sample Data (AO2 – Interpretation)

Year	Top Destination – Arrivals (millions)	Tourism Revenue (US$ bn)
	France | Spain | USA	France | Spain | USA
2015	89 | 75 | 78	68 | 58 | 115
2016	91 | 77 | 80	70 | 60 | 118
2017	94 | 80 | 82	73 | 62 | 122
2018	96 | 82 | 84	75 | 64 | 126
2019	98 | 84 | 86	78 | 66 | 130
2020	20 | 22 | 25	15 | 12 | 20
2021	45 | 48 | 55	35 | 30 | 45
2022	85 | 78 | 82	68 | 58 | 120

Interpretation task (AO2): Using the table, describe the trend in tourist arrivals and revenue from 2015‑2022 for France, Spain and the USA. Explain the sharp decline in 2020 and the pattern of recovery thereafter, linking your answer to at least two external factors (e.g., COVID‑19 restrictions, fiscal stimulus for domestic travel, airline capacity changes).

4. Impacts of Tourism

4.1 Economic Impacts (AO1)

• Foreign‑exchange earnings and contribution to national GDP.
• Direct employment (hotels, transport, restaurants) and indirect employment (agriculture, crafts, construction).
• Infrastructure upgrades – airports, roads, broadband, public transport.
• Risk of economic dependence and vulnerability to external shocks (pandemics, political instability, climate events).
• Positive feedback: tourism‑generated revenue can fund further destination development.
• Negative feedback: over‑reliance may lead to boom‑bust cycles.

4.2 Social & Cultural Impacts (AO1)

• Cross‑cultural interaction and increased global awareness.
• Commodification of culture, “Disneyfication”, loss of authenticity.
• Rising cost of living, housing pressure and displacement of local residents.
• Improved public services funded by tourism tax revenue (health, education).
• Unequal benefit distribution – gendered employment (e.g., women in low‑paid service roles), marginalisation of indigenous groups.

4.3 Environmental Impacts (AO1)

• Pressure on water, energy and waste‑management systems.
• Habitat disturbance, wildlife displacement, biodiversity loss.
• Pollution – aviation CO₂, noise, litter, marine plastic.
• Positive side: funding for conservation, increased environmental awareness among visitors.
• Feedback loops – degradation can reduce destination attractiveness, leading to economic decline.

4.4 Integrated Conceptual Links

• Scale: Global aviation emissions vs. local waste generation.
• Change over time: Growth of cruise‑ship tourism and cumulative reef damage.
• Cause‑and‑effect: Low‑cost carriers → higher arrivals → increased water consumption.
• Systems: Tourism‑linked supply chains linking rural producers to urban hotels.
• Diversity & Equality: Access to tourism benefits for women, youth, and indigenous peoples.

5. Managing Tourism for Sustainability

5.1 Policy Instruments (AO2)

1. Regulation: Zoning, visitor caps (e.g., Machu Picchu 2 500/day), licensing of operators, protected‑area entry permits.
2. Economic tools: Tourist taxes (hotel tax, departure levy), environmental fees, subsidies for renewable‑energy hotels, revenue‑reinvestment schemes.
3. Information & Education: Signage, visitor centres, “Leave No Trace” campaigns, responsible‑travel certifications (e.g., EarthCheck, Green Globe).

5.2 Sustainable Tourism Strategies (AO2)

• Carrying‑capacity assessment: Physical (space), ecological (resource limits), social (resident tolerance), economic (maximum viable revenue).
• Community‑based tourism: Local ownership, profit‑sharing, capacity‑building, cultural‑heritage preservation.
• Eco‑tourism: Low‑impact activities, support for protected‑area management, renewable‑energy installations, water‑saving technologies.
• Diversification & season‑extension: Cultural festivals, winter sports in summer destinations, agritourism, dark‑sky tourism.
• Risk‑management for climate change: Sea‑level rise adaptation (elevated walkways), early‑warning systems for extreme weather, insurance schemes for climate‑related disruptions.

5.3 Global Governance & SDG Linkages

• UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) – sets standards, promotes sustainable tourism policies.
• United Nations Sustainable Development Goals relevant to tourism:
  • SDG 8 – Decent work and economic growth.
  • SDG 12 – Responsible consumption and production (tourism‑related waste reduction).
  • SDG 13 – Climate action (carbon‑offset schemes, low‑emission transport).
  • SDG 15 – Life on land (protected‑area funding, biodiversity conservation).

5.4 Monitoring & Evaluation (AO3)

Effective management requires continuous data collection and adaptive response:

• Visitor numbers – gate counts, mobile‑phone tracking, ticketing systems.
• Financial flows – revenue, tax receipts, reinvestment allocations.
• Environmental indicators – water use per tourist, waste generated, carbon emissions, biodiversity surveys.
• Social indicators – resident attitude surveys, employment quality, gender‑pay gaps.
• Adaptive management – revise caps, fees or marketing strategies when thresholds are breached.

6. Detailed Case Studies (2000‑present)

6.1 Maldives (Island Tourism)

• Context: Low‑lying coral‑atoll nation; tourism ≈ 28 % of GDP (2022).
• Trends: Arrivals rose from 350 000 (2000) to 1.7 million (2019); COVID‑19 cut arrivals to 450 000 (2020); rebound to 1.2 million (2022).
• Impacts:
  • Economic – major foreign‑exchange earner, high wages in hospitality.
  • Social – improved living standards, but rising cost of living and land‑use pressure on local islands.
  • Environmental – coral bleaching, limited freshwater, waste‑water discharge challenges.
• Management actions:
  • Visitor‑capacity limits on popular atolls.
  • Mandatory “green tax” (US$ 6 per tourist night) reinvested in waste‑water treatment and renewable‑energy projects.
  • Eco‑certification for resorts (EarthCheck, Green Globe).
• Evaluation prompt (AO3): To what extent have the green‑tax and capacity measures balanced economic growth with environmental protection? Use post‑2020 data on revenue, waste‑water treatment capacity and coral‑health indicators.

6.2 Machu Picchu, Peru (Heritage Tourism)

• Context: UNESCO World Heritage Site; pre‑COVID annual visitors ≈ 1.5 million.
• Trends: Visitors grew from 500 000 (2000) to 1.5 million (2019); 2020 drop to 200 000; 2022 recovery to ≈ 1.2 million.
• Impacts:
  • Economic – significant income for local Quechua communities and national tourism revenue.
  • Social – employment for guides, but cultural commodification and pressure on traditional lifestyles.
  • Environmental – trail erosion, waste accumulation, disturbance to cloud‑forest ecosystem.
• Management actions:
  • Daily visitor cap of 2 500 with timed‑entry tickets.
  • “Machu Picchu Conservation Fund” financed by a 10 % ticket surcharge.
  • Promotion of alternative treks (Salkantay, Inca Jungle) to disperse pressure.
• Evaluation prompt (AO3): Assess the effectiveness of the timed‑ticket system in reducing erosion while maintaining economic benefits.

6.3 Barcelona, Spain (City‑Level Mass Tourism)

• Context: Mediterranean coastal city; > 12 million arrivals per year (pre‑COVID).
• Impacts:
  • Economic – high tourism revenue, job creation in hospitality and retail.
  • Social – gentrification of historic neighbourhoods, rising rent, resident protests (“tourist tax” debates).
  • Environmental – pressure on water supply, waste generation, air‑quality degradation from traffic.
• Management actions:
  • Implementation of a city‑wide tourist tax (€0.50 per night).
  • Limits on short‑term rentals (Airbnb) in central districts.
  • Pedestrianisation of La Rambla and promotion of sustainable mobility (bike‑share, electric buses).
• Evaluation prompt (AO3): Discuss whether the combination of a tourist tax and short‑term‑rental restrictions has mitigated overtourism impacts without harming the city’s economic base.

7. Skills, Data Interpretation & Evaluation (AO2‑AO3)

7.1 Typical AO2 Tasks

1. Interpret a line graph comparing tourism‑revenue growth with CO₂ emissions from aviation (2000‑2022).
2. Analyse a GIS map of tourist hotspots and identify zones exceeding ecological carrying capacity.
3. Calculate tourism’s contribution to GDP:
   Tourism GDP % = (Tourism revenue ÷ Total GDP) × 100

7.2 AO3 Evaluation Framework

When answering essay‑type questions, use the following checklist:

• Identify benefits (economic, social, environmental).
• Identify drawbacks (dependency, cultural loss, environmental degradation).
• Consider the scale – local, regional, national, global.
• Discuss time‑frames – short‑term gains vs. long‑term sustainability.
• Weigh opportunity costs (e.g., land for hotels vs. agriculture).
• Address inequality of benefit distribution (gender, indigenous, low‑income groups).
• Provide a balanced judgement supported by at least one case study with specific data.

8. Summary Table of Impacts & Management Measures

Impact Category	Positive Effects	Negative Effects	Key Management Measures (AO2)
Economic	Higher GDP, job creation, infrastructure upgrades	Over‑dependence, price inflation, vulnerability to shocks	Economic diversification, revenue‑reinvestment schemes, tourist taxes, risk‑management funds
Social / Cultural	Cultural exchange, improved services, empowerment of artisans	Loss of authenticity, displacement, rising living costs, unequal benefit distribution	Community participation, heritage‑protection policies, equitable profit‑sharing, gender‑focused training programmes
Environmental	Funding for conservation, increased awareness	Resource depletion, waste, habitat loss, carbon emissions	Carrying‑capacity limits, eco‑certification, waste‑management & renewable‑energy programmes, climate‑adaptation planning

9. Key Points for Examination (AO1–AO3)

1. Explain why tourism patterns are unevenly distributed globally, using scale, distance decay, push‑pull factors and place‑specific attractions.
2. Analyse the three impact categories with at least two detailed case‑studies (e.g., Maldives, Machu Picchu, Barcelona).
3. Evaluate the effectiveness of two management tools (e.g., visitor caps & tourist taxes) in a chosen case study, applying the AO3 framework.
4. Discuss how sustainable tourism contributes to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 8, 12, 13, 15).
5. Demonstrate data‑interpretation skills: extract trends from tables/graphs and link them to external drivers such as low‑cost airlines, pandemics, or climate change.

10. Cross‑Reference to Core A‑Level Topics

• Urban areas and management: Tourism‑driven urban growth, gentrification, infrastructure pressures (e.g., Barcelona).
• Water resources: Tourist demand on water supplies, especially in arid or island destinations (e.g., Maldives).
• Population dynamics: Demographic drivers of outbound tourism (rising middle class, ageing populations) and inbound impacts on resident population structures.
• Climate change: Tourism’s contribution to emissions and its vulnerability to sea‑level rise, extreme weather, and coral bleaching.