Urban Areas and Management – Cambridge AS & A Level Geography (9696)

Learning Objective

Identify, explain and evaluate the factors that influence the structure and characteristics of urban areas, the processes of urban growth, and the strategies used to achieve sustainable urban development.

Key Concepts (Syllabus Core)

• Scale: Local, regional, national and global influences on cities.
• Change over time: Short‑term (decadal) and long‑term (century‑scale) trends in urban growth and decline.
• Place: Physical, cultural and economic qualities that make each city unique.
• Spatial variation: Differences in land‑use, density, services, and social groups across a city.
• Cause‑and‑effect: Links between drivers (e.g., transport) and urban outcomes.
• Systems & interactions: Cities as socio‑economic‑environmental systems.
• Challenges & opportunities: Pressures such as congestion, housing shortages and the potential for regeneration.
• Diversity & equality: Social, cultural and economic differences within urban populations.

6.1 Urban Growth and Development

6.1.1 Drivers of Urban Growth

• Population increase – natural increase + net migration (rural‑to‑urban, international).
• Economic expansion – shift from primary to secondary/tertiary sectors creates jobs and attracts migrants.
• Technological change – advances in transport, communications and ICT reduce the friction of distance.
• Policy & planning – growth‑management strategies, green‑belt designations, urban growth boundaries.
• Globalisation – foreign direct investment, multinational headquarters and global trade networks.

6.1.2 Forms of Urban Expansion (Short‑term & Long‑term Patterns)

6.1.3 Urban Hierarchy

• Primate city: One city dominates the national system (e.g., Bangkok, Mexico City).
• Rank‑size hierarchy: Cities follow a predictable size distribution; deviations indicate regional imbalances.
• World‑city network: Cities with global economic influence (e.g., London, New York, Shanghai).

6.1.4 Impacts of Urban Growth on Rural Areas

• Loss of agricultural land and natural habitats.
• Creation of a “rural‑urban fringe” with mixed land‑use (commuter belts, peri‑urban farms).
• Rural depopulation or, conversely, rural gentrification (higher property values, amenity migration).
• Infrastructure upgrades (roads, broadband) that can both benefit and disrupt rural communities.

6.1.5 Change‑over‑Time: Measuring Growth

• Decadal growth rates (e.g., % population increase per 10 years) – useful for short‑term trend analysis.
• Long‑term trends (century‑scale) – illustrated by historic maps, census series, and satellite imagery.
• Indicators: population size, built‑up area, land‑use change, employment structure.

6.2 Urban Structure and Change

6.2.1 Factors Influencing Urban Structure

1. Physical Geography
   • Topography, rivers, coastline, flood‑risk and soil type constrain or direct expansion.
   • Example: London’s linear development along the Thames valley; Hong Kong’s steep slopes limit outward growth.
2. Historical Development
   • Medieval market towns retain compact historic cores with narrow streets.
   • Industrial Revolution produced factory districts and workers’ housing that still shape inner‑city land‑use.
3. Economic Base
   • Primary, secondary and tertiary activities locate jobs and dictate land‑use intensity.
   • Shift to service‑based economies creates office sub‑centres and “knowledge‑economy” clusters.
4. Transport Networks
   • Railways, motorways, tram and bus corridors act as development “spines”.
   • High accessibility produces “nodes” of high land value – often high‑rise offices or mixed‑use towers.
5. Planning Policies
   • Zoning regulates land‑use separation or promotes mixed‑use development.
   • Urban growth boundaries (e.g., UK Green Belt) limit outward sprawl.
6. Social & Cultural Factors
   • Ethnic or religious communities may cluster, forming distinct neighbourhoods (e.g., Chinatown, Little India).
   • Lifestyle preferences – desire for green space, walkability – influence suburban growth patterns.
7. Technological Change
   • Telecommunications and remote working reduce the need to live close to workplaces.
   • Smart‑city infrastructure (sensors, data platforms) reshapes public spaces and transport management.
8. Globalisation
   • International corporations locate headquarters in global cities, reinforcing dense, high‑rise CBDs.
   • Migration flows introduce new cultural districts and diversify the urban fabric.

6.2.2 How Factors Shape Urban Characteristics

• Land‑use patterns – CBD, commercial sub‑centres, residential zones, industrial estates, green belts.
• Density & population distribution – High density in historic cores; lower density in peripheral suburbs or satellite towns.
• Housing types – High‑rise apartments near transport hubs; terraced or semi‑detached houses in inner suburbs; detached houses on the fringe.
• Service provision – Schools, hospitals, retail and leisure concentrate where population density and accessibility are greatest.
• Social segregation – Economic or ethnic clustering can create “wealthy” and “deprived” neighbourhoods.
• Location of activities – Primary activities on the outskirts, secondary in industrial parks, tertiary in CBD/sub‑centres, and quaternary (knowledge) in high‑tech clusters.
• Residential zonation – From inner‑city high‑density apartments, through inner‑suburban terraced/semidetached housing, to outer‑suburban detached houses and “edge‑city” developments.

6.2.3 Illustrative Case Studies (Polycentric & Regeneration Cities)

1. London, United Kingdom – River Thames, extensive rail & underground network, strict Green Belt policy → polycentric metropolis with multiple sub‑centres (Canary Wharf, Stratford, Croydon).
2. Manchester, United Kingdom – Post‑industrial regeneration (MediaCityUK, Northern Quarter) demonstrates the shift from manufacturing to service‑based sub‑centres and the role of urban renewal.
3. Shanghai, China – Coastal location, massive foreign investment and a dual‑core (Pudong financial district & historic Puxi) illustrate globalisation‑driven rapid expansion.
4. Los Angeles, USA – Highly car‑dependent, sprawling urban form; contrast between dense downtown and extensive low‑density suburbs.

6.2.4 Summary Table – Factors, Mechanisms and Resulting Urban Characteristics

6.3 Sustainable Urban Development & Management

6.3.1 Major Urban Sustainability Challenges

• Housing shortage & affordability – rising land values, informal settlements, homelessness.
• Transport congestion & air pollution – car dependency, emissions, noise.
• Waste management – solid waste generation, recycling rates, landfill capacity.
• Water supply & flood risk – ageing infrastructure, climate‑change‑induced flooding, water‑stress.
• Loss of green space & biodiversity – urban heat‑island effect, reduced ecosystem services.
• Social inequality – spatial segregation, unequal access to services, health disparities.

6.3.2 Management Strategies (Hard vs. Soft Engineering & Policy)

6.3.3 Evaluating Sustainable Urban Strategies

1. Effectiveness – Measurable reduction in the targeted problem (e.g., % fall in traffic volumes, number of new affordable homes).
2. Equity – Does the strategy benefit all social groups or widen inequality?
3. Economic viability – Capital and operating costs versus long‑term savings and economic benefits.
4. Environmental impact – Direct and indirect effects on biodiversity, carbon footprint, resource use.
5. Political & public acceptability – Level of community support, potential for opposition, and governance capacity.
6. Scalability & transferability – Can the approach be applied to other cities or at different scales?

Summary Checklist for Exam Answers

• Define the factor (e.g., physical geography, planning policy).
• Explain the mechanism (how the factor influences location, density, land‑use).
• Provide a concrete example or case study.
• Link the factor to at least two urban characteristics (e.g., density and housing type).
• When evaluating, consider effectiveness, equity, economic viability, environmental impact and acceptability.