Core studies develop understanding of how psychologists study experiences and behaviours

AS Level Core Studies

Objective: To develop an understanding of how psychologists study experiences and behaviours through the analysis of classic core studies.

1. What are Core Studies?

Core studies are landmark experiments or investigations that have significantly influenced psychological theory and practice. They are routinely examined in the A‑Level curriculum because they illustrate key research methods, ethical issues, and theoretical concepts.

2. Why Study Core Studies?

• Demonstrate the application of research methods (experimental, correlational, case study, etc.).
• Highlight the development of ethical standards in psychology.
• Provide concrete examples of how theory is derived from empirical evidence.
• Offer a basis for evaluating contemporary research.

3. Key Core Studies

The following table summarises the most frequently examined core studies for the AS Level.

Study	Year	Participants	Method	Key Findings	Ethical Issues
Milgram (Obedience)	1963	40 male volunteers (U.S.)	Laboratory experiment – participants administered shocks to a learner.	High levels of obedience to authority even when actions conflicted with personal conscience.	Deception, severe stress, lack of informed consent.
Stanford Prison (Social Roles)	1971	24 male college students	Simulated prison environment – participants assigned as guards or prisoners.	Rapid internalisation of roles; guards displayed abusive behaviour.	Psychological harm, inadequate debriefing, lack of right to withdraw.
Asch (Conformity)	1951	150 male students (U.S.)	Group pressure task – participants judged line lengths.	Approximately 75% conformed at least once to the incorrect majority.	Deception about group composition; minimal lasting harm.
Bandura (Bobo Doll)	1961	72 children (3–6 years)	Observational learning – children watched a model behave aggressively toward a Bobo doll.	Children imitated aggressive behaviour; demonstrated social learning.	Potential distress from exposure to aggression; parental consent required.
Harlow (Attachment)	1958	Rhesus macaque infants	Laboratory experiment – infants given cloth vs. wire mothers.	Infants preferred comfort (cloth mother) over food (wire mother).	Animal welfare concerns; modern standards would prohibit.
Loftus & Palmer (Memory)	1974	45 university students (U.K.)	Laboratory experiment – participants watched a car crash video and answered leading questions.	Question wording altered participants’ recollection of speed and presence of “smashed” cars.	Deception about purpose; minimal risk.

4. Research Methods Illustrated by Core Studies

1. Experimental Method – Manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable (e.g., Milgram, Stanford Prison).
2. Observational Method – Systematic recording of behaviour without manipulation (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo Doll).
3. Case Study – In‑depth investigation of a single individual or small group (e.g., Harlow’s infant monkeys).
4. Correlational Study – Examines relationships between variables without implying causation (e.g., later studies on obedience and personality).
5. Survey/Questionnaire – Collects self‑report data from large samples (e.g., modern replications of Asch).

5. Ethical Considerations Emerging from Core Studies

Core studies have shaped the development of the British Psychological Society (BPS) and American Psychological Association (APA) ethical guidelines. Key principles include:

• Informed Consent: Participants must be fully aware of what participation involves.
• Right to Withdraw: Participants can stop at any time without penalty.
• Deception: Must be justified, minimal, and followed by thorough debriefing.
• Protection from Harm: Physical and psychological wellbeing must be safeguarded.
• Confidentiality: Personal data must be kept secure and anonymised where possible.

6. How Core Studies Inform Modern Research

Modern psychologists build on core studies by:

• Replicating findings with improved ethical safeguards.
• Extending investigations to diverse populations and cultures.
• Using advanced technologies (e.g., neuroimaging) to explore underlying mechanisms.
• Integrating findings into applied settings such as education, health, and organisational psychology.

7. Summary

Core studies are essential for understanding how psychologists investigate experiences and behaviours. They illustrate fundamental research methods, highlight the evolution of ethical standards, and provide a foundation for contemporary psychological inquiry.