Show understanding of why user-defined types are necessary

• Binary, octal, hexadecimal bases; conversion methods.
• Two’s‑complement for signed integers.
• Floating‑point representation (IEEE 754 single precision).
• Character encodings (ASCII, Unicode UTF‑8).

• Arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues, trees, graphs.
• Searching (linear, binary) and sorting (bubble, selection, insertion, merge, quick).
• Big‑O notation – time & space complexity.

• CPU fetch‑decode‑execute cycle.
• Instruction sets, RISC vs CISC.
• Pipelining, cache hierarchy, virtual memory.

• Process vs thread, multitasking, scheduling algorithms (FCFS, RR, priority).
• Memory management – paging, segmentation.
• File systems, security permissions.

• OSI model – functions of each layer.
• TCP/IP suite, IPv4/IPv6 addressing, subnetting.
• Switching (circuit, packet, virtual‑circuit), routing protocols.

• Symmetric vs asymmetric encryption, hashing, digital signatures.
• Authentication, firewalls, intrusion detection.
• Legal and ethical issues – data protection, intellectual property.

• Relational model, primary/foreign keys, normalization (1NF‑3NF).
• SQL – SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, JOINs, aggregate functions.

• Stages: analysis, design, implementation, testing, maintenance.
• UML diagrams – class, use‑case, activity, sequence.

• Control structures, loops, functions/sub‑routines.
• Exception handling, file I/O.

• Unit, integration, system, acceptance testing.
• Black‑box vs white‑box techniques, test‑case design (boundary, equivalence).

• Raster vs vector graphics, colour models (RGB, CMYK).
• Lossless (ZIP, PNG) vs lossy (JPEG, MP3) compression – entropy, Huffman coding.

• Impact of computing on society, sustainability, digital divide.

public class Point {
    public int x;
    public int y;
    public Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
}

from collections import namedtuple
Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])

Public Structure Point
    Public X As Integer
    Public Y As Integer
    Public Sub New(x As Integer, y As Integer)
        Me.X = x : Me.Y = y
    End Sub
End Structure

public enum Year { FRESHMAN, SOPHOMORE, JUNIOR, SENIOR }

from enum import Enum
class Year(Enum):
    FRESHMAN = 1
    SOPHOMORE = 2
    JUNIOR = 3
    SENIOR = 4

Public Enum Year
    Freshman = 0
    Sophomore = 1
    Junior = 2
    Senior = 3
End Enum

public class Student {
    private int id;
    private String name;
    private double gpa;
    private Year year;

    public Student(int id, String name, double gpa, Year year) {
        this.id = id; this.name = name; this.gpa = gpa; this.year = year;
    }
    public int getId() { return id; }
    public String getName() { return name; }
    public double getGpa() { return gpa; }
    public Year getYear() { return year; }
}

class Student:
    def __init__(self, id: int, name: str, gpa: float, year: Year):
        self._id = id
        self._name = name
        self._gpa = gpa
        self._year = year

    @property
    def id(self): return self._id
    @property
    def name(self): return self._name
    @property
    def gpa(self): return self._gpa
    @property
    def year(self): return self._year

Public Class Student
    Private _id As Integer
    Private _name As String
    Private _gpa As Double
    Private _year As Year

    Public Sub New(id As Integer, name As String, gpa As Double, year As Year)
        _id = id : _name = name : _gpa = gpa : _year = year
    End Sub

    Public ReadOnly Property Id As Integer
        Get : Return _id : End Get
    End Property
    ' Additional read‑only properties omitted for brevity
End Class