3.5 China, c.1930–c.1990

3.5 China, c.1930 – c.1990

1. Syllabus Context (Cambridge IGCSE History 0470)

• This unit is a centre‑devised depth study (Component 3 / Paper 4). It is used instead of one of the five prescribed depth studies (A‑E) for the coursework component.
• All candidates must also study the mandatory Core content (choose either Option A or Option B). The table below shows how the core material will be linked to the China study so that the whole syllabus is covered.
• The study meets the IGCSE assessment objectives:
  • AO1 – Knowledge: dates, leaders, policies and outcomes.
  • AO2 – Understanding & explanation: cause‑and‑consequence links, evaluation of policies.
  • AO3 – Source analysis: a source bank with a range of source types and explicit OVAL prompts.

2. Core Content (Option A or B) – How It Is Integrated

Teachers must decide which core option to teach. The suggested mapping shows where the China material can be used to reinforce the core themes.

3. Depth‑Study Requirement

• China is not one of the five prescribed depth studies. Therefore the class must also study one of the prescribed studies (A‑E) for the coursework component. The table above shows how the two can be taught together.
• If the school wishes to keep China as the sole depth study, it must be classified as a centre‑devised study and still be accompanied by a prescribed study (e.g., “The First World War”).

4. Key Chronology (Cause → Consequence)

5. Political Developments

• Nationalist Government (Kuomintang – KMT)
  • Corruption, warlord rivalries and limited central authority weakened its ability to resist Japanese aggression.
  • Relied on US aid after 1945, but lost popular support to the CCP’s land reforms.
• Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
  • Built a mass base among peasants through land redistribution (1927‑1937) and guerrilla warfare.
  • Used the United Front (1937‑45) to survive the Japanese war, then turned against the KMT (1946‑49).
• Mao Zedong (1949‑1976)
  • Established a one‑party state; introduced People’s Communes and the Little Red Book as ideological tools.
  • Radical campaigns:
    • Great Leap Forward – collectivisation & “backyard furnaces”.
    • Cultural Revolution – Red Guard mobilisation, persecution of “capitalist roaders”.
  • Maintained personal authority through a strong cult of personality, reinforced by mass rallies and propaganda.
• Deng Xiaoping (1978‑1992)
  • Promoted the “Four Modernisations” (agriculture, industry, defence, science & technology).
  • Decentralised decision‑making: Household Responsibility System, Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and limited private enterprise.
  • Retained strict political control – the Party remained the “core” of the state.

6. Economic Policies and Their Impact

1. Great Leap Forward (1958‑1962)
   • Collectivisation created People’s Communes that combined agriculture, industry and communal living.
   • Backyard steel furnaces diverted labour from farming; output was low‑quality and often unusable.
   • Result: catastrophic famine (estimated 15‑45 million deaths)¹; rural discontent weakened CCP legitimacy.
2. Cultural Revolution (1966‑1976)
   • Schools and universities closed; intellectuals sent to the countryside for “re‑education”.
   • Industrial production fell 15‑20 % in the early 1970s due to loss of skilled managers.
   • Social chaos created a generation with limited formal education, affecting long‑term human capital.
3. Reform and Opening‑up (1978 onward)
   • Special Economic Zones (Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Xiamen, Shantou) attracted foreign direct investment (FDI) with tax incentives and looser regulations.
   • Household Responsibility System allowed farmers to keep surplus after meeting state quotas, boosting agricultural output by ~30 % in the early 1980s.
   • Export‑led growth: by 1990 China’s share of world manufactured exports rose from <0.5 % (1978) to ~2 %.
   • GDP growth averaged 9.8 % per year in the 1980s (official statistics)².

7. Social Changes

• Urbanisation accelerated: rural‑to‑urban migration increased from 13 % (1978) to 31 % (1990).
• Literacy rose from 66 % (1949) to over 80 % (1990) – driven by compulsory primary education and adult‑literacy campaigns.
• Women’s participation in the labour force grew from ~20 % (1949) to >45 % (1990), especially in state‑run factories and later in the private sector.
• Religion and traditional customs were heavily restricted during the Mao era; the reform period saw a cautious revival of Buddhism, Taoism and folk festivals, all under Party supervision.

8. Foreign Relations

• Cold War Alignment (1949‑1960s) – close ties with the Soviet Union, receiving technical aid and Soviet advisers; split in the early 1960s over ideological and strategic differences.
• US Relations – Nixon’s 1972 visit initiated “ping‑pong diplomacy”; formal diplomatic recognition in 1979 opened trade and cultural exchanges.
• Regional Influence – PRC supported communist movements in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia; later shifted to a more pragmatic “non‑interference” stance.
• Economic Diplomacy – Joined the World Bank (1979) and IMF (1980); signed the 1980 Sino‑British Joint Declaration on Hong Kong’s future.

9. Source Bank (AO3 – Expanded)

Each source includes a brief context note and an OVAL (Origin, Value, Author, Limitation) prompt.

1. 1949 – Proclamation of the People’s Republic of China (Mao Zedong, Tiananmen Square)
   “All Chinese peoples have risen up together … the new China will be a people’s democratic dictatorship under the leadership of the Communist Party.”
   Prompt: Identify the speaker’s purpose, assess how the language legitimises CCP rule, and discuss any bias.
2. 1958 – Mao’s “Great Leap Forward” speech to the Central Committee
   “We must surpass Britain and the United States in steel production within a few years … every commune shall build its own furnace.”
   Prompt: Analyse the intended audience, the persuasive techniques used, and the reliability of the claim about industrial superiority.
3. 1966 – Red Guard pamphlet, “Destroy the Four Olds”
   “Old ideas, old culture, old customs and old habits are the enemies of the people. They must be smashed!”
   Prompt: Explain the pamphlet’s role in mobilising youth, evaluate its value as evidence of Cultural Revolution ideology, and note any limitations.
4. 1978 – Deng Xiaoping’s “Southern Tour” speech (Shenzhen)
   “Development is of paramount importance. Let some people get rich first – this will benefit the whole nation.”
   Prompt: Discuss how the speech signals a shift in economic ideology while retaining political control, and consider the audience’s reaction.
5. 1989 – International news photograph, Tiananmen Square protest (June 4)
   Caption: “Students and workers confront tanks; the world watches China’s demand for political reform.”
   Prompt: Evaluate the photograph’s impact on global opinion, identify the photographer’s likely perspective, and discuss what the image omits.
6. 1946 – KMT government memorandum on land reform (Beijing)
   Excerpt: “To win the hearts of the peasantry we must redistribute idle lands, but the process must not undermine private ownership.”
   Prompt: Assess the memorandum’s usefulness for understanding KMT policy, its intended audience, and any propaganda elements.
7. 1971 – The New York Times article, “China’s Famine: A Hidden Tragedy”
   Excerpt: “Western observers estimate that up to 30 million have perished, a figure the Chinese government refuses to confirm.”
   Prompt: Analyse the article’s purpose, its value for studying international perceptions of the Great Leap Forward, and its potential Cold‑War bias.
8. 1990 – World Bank chart: “China’s Export Growth 1978‑1990”
   Graph shows exports rising from $2 billion to $45 billion.
   Prompt: Interpret the data, discuss its reliability, and explain how it supports arguments about the success of reform policies.

Suggested AO3 Questions (using OVAL)

• Analyse how Mao’s language in the 1949 proclamation reflects the CCP’s claim to legitimacy (origin, purpose, value, limitation).
• Evaluate the effectiveness of Mao’s 1958 rhetoric in mobilising the masses for the Great Leap Forward.
• Discuss the extent to which the Red Guard pamphlet illustrates the goals of the Cultural Revolution.
• Explain how Deng’s 1978 speech signals a shift in economic ideology while retaining political control.
• Assess the impact of the 1989 photograph on international perceptions of China.
• Compare the KMT land‑reform memorandum (1946) with the CCP’s 1949 proclamation to evaluate competing claims to the “people’s” support.

10. Assessment Prompts (AO1 & AO2)

1. Describe the main features of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, and explain how each policy contributed to China’s demographic and economic situation by 1976.
2. Evaluate the effectiveness of Deng Xiaoping’s reforms (1978‑1990) in transforming China from a closed, centrally planned economy to a global manufacturing powerhouse. Include evidence of growth rates, foreign investment and living‑standard changes.
3. Discuss why one‑party rule continued after 1978 despite extensive economic liberalisation. Consider political, ideological and practical factors.
4. Analyse the short‑ and long‑term impact of the 1989 Tiananmen Square events on China’s international reputation and on subsequent domestic policy choices.

11. Footnotes / References

1. Ferguson, N. (2010). China’s Great Leap: The Untold Story of the 1958–1962 Famine. London: Penguin. Estimates of mortality range from 15 million (official) to 45 million (scholarly consensus).
2. World Bank (1991). World Development Indicators – China. Data show an average annual real GDP growth of 9.8 % for 1980‑1990.
3. New York Times Archive (1971). “China’s Famine: A Hidden Tragedy”, 12 May 1971.
4. World Bank (1990). “China’s Export Growth 1978‑1990”, statistical series 2‑12.

12. Suggested Diagram

Timeline of major political, economic and social events in China, c.1930 – c.1990 – include the dates from the chronology table, colour‑code by theme (political, economic, foreign relations) and add icons for key reforms (e.g., a factory for the Great Leap, a factory with a globe for Reform & Opening‑up). This visual aid helps learners to see connections across the three decades.