Paper 2 – Human Geography
10 Resource Provision
10.1 Food Production
1. Agricultural Systems (Cambridge IGCSE Geography 0460)
| System |
Primary Purpose |
Typical Scale (ha per farm) |
Key Characteristics |
| Subsistence Agriculture |
Produce food for the farmer’s own family or local community |
1 – 5 |
- Low capital input; reliance on family labour
- Mixed cropping and livestock; often inter‑cropping
- Rain‑fed; little or no irrigation
- Traditional tools (hand‑hoes, sickles)
- Low yields, high labour intensity
|
| Mixed (Semi‑commercial) Agriculture |
Combination of market sales and household consumption |
5 – 20 |
- Partial mechanisation (tractors, small‑scale equipment)
- Cultivation of both cash crops (e.g., coffee, cotton) and food crops (e.g., maize)
- Some irrigation; often rain‑fed with supplemental water
- Diversified income – crops, livestock, off‑farm work
|
| Commercial Agriculture |
Produce for local, national or export markets |
10 – several thousand |
- High capital investment; extensive use of machinery
- Specialised crops or livestock (e.g., wheat, soy, dairy, poultry)
- Intensive use of inputs – fertilisers, pesticides, improved seed varieties
- Irrigation (surface, sprinkler, drip) is common
- Market‑oriented; often part of global supply chains
|
2. Factors Influencing Agricultural Output
| Factor |
How it Affects Output |
Typical Example / Case Study |
| Climate |
- Temperature and length of growing season determine which crops can mature.
- Rainfall amount and seasonal pattern decide whether a farm is rain‑fed or irrigation‑dependent.
- Frost risk limits planting dates for sensitive crops.
|
Rice thrives in warm, monsoonal climates – Bangladesh; wheat grows best in cooler, drier zones – Canadian Prairies. |
| Soil Quality |
- Texture (sand, loam, clay) influences water‑holding capacity and root penetration.
- Soil fertility (nutrient content) directly affects yields.
- Management (fertilisation, liming, crop rotation, organic matter) can improve productivity.
|
Loess soils of the North China Plain support intensive wheat production. |
| Topography |
- Flat land allows mechanisation and large‑scale irrigation.
- Steep slopes increase erosion risk, limit machinery, often require terracing.
|
Terraced rice paddies in the Philippines; mechanised grain farms on the flat plains of the US Midwest. |
| Water Availability & Irrigation |
- Reliable water supply raises yields, especially in arid/semi‑arid regions.
- Type of irrigation (surface, sprinkler, drip) influences water use efficiency.
|
Drip irrigation in Israel’s Negev desert boosts vegetable yields while conserving water. |
| Technology & Inputs |
- High‑yielding varieties (HYVs) and genetically modified (GM) crops increase potential output.
- Pesticides, herbicides, and mechanised equipment reduce losses and labour time.
|
Green Revolution wheat and rice varieties in the Indo‑Gangetic Plain. |
| Labour Availability |
- Skilled labour improves efficiency; labour shortages limit expansion.
- Rural‑to‑urban migration reduces the farm workforce in many developing countries.
|
South African commercial farms rely on seasonal migrant workers for harvesting. |
| Capital & Investment |
- Access to credit, subsidies, and government incentives enables purchase of machinery and inputs.
- Large‑scale infrastructure (e.g., irrigation schemes) often requires public‑private partnership funding.
|
Nile Basin Initiative funding for large irrigation projects in Egypt and Sudan. |
| Market Access |
- Proximity to roads, ports, storage and processing facilities reduces transport costs.
- Stable demand and price certainty encourage higher production.
|
Kenyan coffee growers benefit from the Mombasa port and international fair‑trade markets. |
| Government Policy & Institutional Support |
- Secure land tenure, extension services, and research institutions improve productivity.
- Trade policies (tariffs, export subsidies, import quotas) affect profitability.
- Food‑security programmes can stabilise domestic markets.
|
India’s Public Distribution System (PDS) and subsidies for wheat and rice. |
| Pests, Diseases & Crop Protection |
- Outbreaks can cause sudden yield losses.
- Integrated pest management (IPM) and resistant varieties mitigate risk.
|
Fall armyworm infestations in East African maize fields. |
3. Yield Calculation (Exam Skill)
Yield expresses the amount of produce per unit area and is a key indicator of agricultural efficiency.
Formula
\[
\text{Yield (t ha}^{-1}\text{)} = \frac{\text{Total production (tonnes)}}{\text{Area harvested (hectares)}}
\]
Worked Example
A wheat farm produces 12 000 t from 3 000 ha.
\[
\text{Yield} = \frac{12\,000\ \text{t}}{3\,000\ \text{ha}} = 4\ \text{t ha}^{-1}
\]
Higher yields generally reflect favourable climate, good soils, effective technology, adequate water and sound management practices.
4. Quick Revision Checklist
- Three main agricultural systems – subsistence, mixed (semi‑commercial) and commercial.
- Key output factors – climate, soil, topography, water/irrigation, technology, labour, capital, market access, policy, pests.
- Remember at least one case study for each factor (e.g., drip irrigation – Israel; terracing – Philippines; Green Revolution – India).
- Be able to calculate and interpret yield using the formula above.