3.2 Food production: Describe agricultural systems and factors influencing output.

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Paper 2 – Human Geography

10 Resource Provision

10.1 Food Production

1. Agricultural Systems (Cambridge IGCSE Geography 0460)
System Primary Purpose Typical Scale (ha per farm) Key Characteristics
Subsistence Agriculture Produce food for the farmer’s own family or local community 1 – 5
  • Low capital input; reliance on family labour
  • Mixed cropping and livestock; often inter‑cropping
  • Rain‑fed; little or no irrigation
  • Traditional tools (hand‑hoes, sickles)
  • Low yields, high labour intensity
Mixed (Semi‑commercial) Agriculture Combination of market sales and household consumption 5 – 20
  • Partial mechanisation (tractors, small‑scale equipment)
  • Cultivation of both cash crops (e.g., coffee, cotton) and food crops (e.g., maize)
  • Some irrigation; often rain‑fed with supplemental water
  • Diversified income – crops, livestock, off‑farm work
Commercial Agriculture Produce for local, national or export markets 10 – several thousand
  • High capital investment; extensive use of machinery
  • Specialised crops or livestock (e.g., wheat, soy, dairy, poultry)
  • Intensive use of inputs – fertilisers, pesticides, improved seed varieties
  • Irrigation (surface, sprinkler, drip) is common
  • Market‑oriented; often part of global supply chains
2. Factors Influencing Agricultural Output
Factor How it Affects Output Typical Example / Case Study
Climate
  • Temperature and length of growing season determine which crops can mature.
  • Rainfall amount and seasonal pattern decide whether a farm is rain‑fed or irrigation‑dependent.
  • Frost risk limits planting dates for sensitive crops.
 Rice thrives in warm, monsoonal climates – Bangladesh; wheat grows best in cooler, drier zones – Canadian Prairies.
Soil Quality
  • Texture (sand, loam, clay) influences water‑holding capacity and root penetration.
  • Soil fertility (nutrient content) directly affects yields.
  • Management (fertilisation, liming, crop rotation, organic matter) can improve productivity.
 Loess soils of the North China Plain support intensive wheat production.
Topography
  • Flat land allows mechanisation and large‑scale irrigation.
  • Steep slopes increase erosion risk, limit machinery, often require terracing.
 Terraced rice paddies in the Philippines; mechanised grain farms on the flat plains of the US Midwest.
Water Availability & Irrigation
  • Reliable water supply raises yields, especially in arid/semi‑arid regions.
  • Type of irrigation (surface, sprinkler, drip) influences water use efficiency.
 Drip irrigation in Israel’s Negev desert boosts vegetable yields while conserving water.
Technology & Inputs
  • High‑yielding varieties (HYVs) and genetically modified (GM) crops increase potential output.
  • Pesticides, herbicides, and mechanised equipment reduce losses and labour time.
 Green Revolution wheat and rice varieties in the Indo‑Gangetic Plain.
Labour Availability
  • Skilled labour improves efficiency; labour shortages limit expansion.
  • Rural‑to‑urban migration reduces the farm workforce in many developing countries.
 South African commercial farms rely on seasonal migrant workers for harvesting.
Capital & Investment
  • Access to credit, subsidies, and government incentives enables purchase of machinery and inputs.
  • Large‑scale infrastructure (e.g., irrigation schemes) often requires public‑private partnership funding.
 Nile Basin Initiative funding for large irrigation projects in Egypt and Sudan.
Market Access
  • Proximity to roads, ports, storage and processing facilities reduces transport costs.
  • Stable demand and price certainty encourage higher production.
 Kenyan coffee growers benefit from the Mombasa port and international fair‑trade markets.
Government Policy & Institutional Support
  • Secure land tenure, extension services, and research institutions improve productivity.
  • Trade policies (tariffs, export subsidies, import quotas) affect profitability.
  • Food‑security programmes can stabilise domestic markets.
 India’s Public Distribution System (PDS) and subsidies for wheat and rice.
Pests, Diseases & Crop Protection
  • Outbreaks can cause sudden yield losses.
  • Integrated pest management (IPM) and resistant varieties mitigate risk.
 Fall armyworm infestations in East African maize fields.
3. Yield Calculation (Exam Skill)

Yield expresses the amount of produce per unit area and is a key indicator of agricultural efficiency.

Formula

\[ \text{Yield (t ha}^{-1}\text{)} = \frac{\text{Total production (tonnes)}}{\text{Area harvested (hectares)}} \]

Worked Example

A wheat farm produces 12 000 t from 3 000 ha.

\[ \text{Yield} = \frac{12\,000\ \text{t}}{3\,000\ \text{ha}} = 4\ \text{t ha}^{-1} \]

Higher yields generally reflect favourable climate, good soils, effective technology, adequate water and sound management practices.

4. Quick Revision Checklist
  • Three main agricultural systems – subsistence, mixed (semi‑commercial) and commercial.
  • Key output factors – climate, soil, topography, water/irrigation, technology, labour, capital, market access, policy, pests.
  • Remember at least one case study for each factor (e.g., drip irrigation – Israel; terracing – Philippines; Green Revolution – India).
  • Be able to calculate and interpret yield using the formula above.

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