1.7 Urbanisation – Causes, Consequences and Management
What is urbanisation?
Urbanisation is the process by which an increasing proportion of a country’s population lives in towns and cities, together with the physical expansion of those urban areas.
1. Global patterns of urban growth
| Year |
World urban population (% of total) |
Low‑income countries (LICs) – % urban |
High‑income countries (HICs) – % urban |
| 2000 |
48 % |
31 % |
78 % |
| 2010 |
53 % |
36 % |
81 % |
| 2020 |
56 % |
40 % |
84 % |
| 2025 (estimate) |
58 % |
44 % |
85 % |
Source: UN World Urbanisation Prospects (2023). The table shows rapid urban growth in LICs, while urbanisation in HICs is approaching saturation.
2. Why do growth rates differ between regions? (Syllabus 7.1)
- Stage of economic development – HICs have already completed the shift from agriculture to industry and services; most of the population is already urban. LICs are still in early stages, so migration to cities is a major driver of growth.
- Demographic transition – HICs have low fertility and ageing populations, limiting natural increase. Many LICs still have high fertility, providing a large labour pool that moves to towns.
- Industrialisation and service‑sector expansion – New factories, tech parks and service‑industry clusters are concentrated in cities of LICs, creating strong pull factors.
- Rural push factors – Mechanisation of agriculture, land fragmentation, climate stress (drought, flood) and declining rural incomes are more acute in low‑income regions.
- Government policy – HICs often have mature planning systems that limit uncontrolled expansion, whereas many LICs adopt pro‑urban policies (e.g., special economic zones) that accelerate city growth.
- Infrastructure development – Investment in roads, ports and digital networks is usually faster in rapidly urbanising LICs, making cities more attractive.
3. Drivers of urbanisation – Push and Pull Factors
- Economic pull
- Concentration of industrial and service‑sector jobs.
- Higher wages and clearer career pathways.
- Social and service pull
- Better access to education, health care, banking and entertainment.
- Cultural diversity and social interaction.
- Infrastructure pull
- Improved transport (roads, rail, ports, airports).
- Reliable utilities – electricity, water, internet.
- Government‑policy pull
- Urban‑focused development plans, industrial zones, housing subsidies.
- Rural push
- Mechanisation of agriculture → fewer farm jobs.
- Low agricultural incomes, land fragmentation, insecure tenancy.
- Environmental pressures – drought, flood, soil degradation.
4. Causes of rapid urban growth in low‑income countries (LICs)
- High natural increase (birth rates > death rates).
- Large‑scale rural‑to‑urban migration driven by the push factors above.
- Creation of informal economies (e.g., street vending, construction) that absorb migrants quickly.
- Government incentives for urban industrialisation (special economic zones, tax breaks).
- Limited rural development programmes, making cities the only realistic option for upward mobility.
5. Positive consequences (Opportunities) of urbanisation
- Higher productivity and faster economic growth (rise in GDP per capita).
- Improved access to services – schools, hospitals, banks, retail.
- Cultural diversity, innovation and diffusion of new technologies.
- Greater employment specialisation and professional development.
- Potential for more efficient public‑transport and service delivery when well planned.
6. Negative consequences (Challenges) of urbanisation
| Challenge |
Typical impact |
| Over‑crowding and slum formation |
Informal settlements with inadequate housing, sanitation and security. |
| Housing pressure |
High rents, homelessness and unaffordable home‑ownership. |
| Environmental problems |
Air and water pollution, waste‑management deficits, loss of green space. |
| Transport congestion |
Long travel times, increased fuel consumption, higher emissions. |
| Social inequality |
Widening gap between affluent and low‑income groups; higher crime rates. |
| Urban sprawl |
Encroachment on agricultural land and natural habitats; higher infrastructure costs. |
7. Management of urban growth – Strategies and Evaluation (Syllabus 7.2)
Cambridge expects candidates to evaluate each strategy in terms of effectiveness, sustainability and possible drawbacks.
| Strategy |
How it works |
Evaluation (strengths / limitations) |
| Zoning & land‑use planning |
Designates specific areas for residential, commercial, industrial and green space. |
Strength: Controls sprawl, protects environmentally sensitive land.
Limitation: Requires strong enforcement; may increase land prices and limit affordable housing. |
| Green‑belt policies |
Creates a ring of protected open land around a city to limit outward expansion. |
Strength: Preserves farmland and biodiversity.
Limitation: Can push development into distant satellite towns, increasing commuting distances. |
| Satellite‑town / satellite‑city development |
Planned new towns on the urban fringe with housing, jobs and services. |
Strength: Relieves pressure on the core city, provides affordable housing.
Limitation: Needs substantial investment in transport links; risk of “dormitory towns” with limited local employment. |
| Public‑transport schemes (BRT, metro, light rail) |
Provides high‑capacity, low‑emission travel options. |
Strength: Reduces congestion, cuts emissions, improves accessibility.
Limitation: High capital cost; effectiveness depends on integration with land‑use planning. |
| Slum‑upgrading programmes |
Improves infrastructure, legalises tenure and provides basic services in informal settlements. |
Strength: Improves living standards without forced relocation.
Limitation: Can be costly and slow; does not fully address the underlying demand for affordable housing. |
| Participatory planning |
Involves local communities in decision‑making (e.g., neighbourhood councils, participatory budgeting). |
Strength: Increases legitimacy and local ownership.
Limitation: May slow decision‑making; requires capacity‑building and clear frameworks. |
8. Case study – Lagos, Nigeria (Megacity in a low‑income country)
8.1 Causes of rapid urban growth
- Economic pull: Oil‑related industries, a large port, and a booming service sector create thousands of jobs.
- Social pull: Universities, specialist hospitals and a vibrant cultural scene attract migrants.
- Infrastructure pull: Expansion of the Lagos‑Apapa port, new highways and the Lagos BRT system.
- Rural push: Declining agricultural incomes in the Niger Delta, climate‑related stresses (flooding, soil degradation).
- Government policy: Designation of Lagos as a “megacity” with special economic‑zone incentives and the 2021 Master Plan.
8.2 Opportunities created by urbanisation
- GDP contribution – Lagos generates about 30 % of Nigeria’s total GDP.
- Improved access to tertiary education – University of Lagos and several private colleges.
- Cultural hub – music, Nollywood film production and a diverse culinary scene attract tourism.
- Innovation – rapid growth of fintech startups and mobile‑money services.
8.3 Challenges faced
- Population surge: ~1.5 million (1960) → >15 million (2023), a ten‑fold increase.
- Extensive informal settlements (e.g., Makoko) with limited water, sanitation and electricity.
- Severe traffic congestion – average travel speed in the CBD < 15 km h⁻¹ during peak hours.
- Air quality regularly exceeds WHO safe limits; high NO₂ and PM₂.₅ concentrations.
- Housing shortage – average rent for a one‑bedroom flat in central Lagos ≈ ₦250,000 / month.
8.4 Management strategies implemented
- Lagos BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) – dedicated lanes, 150 km of routes, target of 1 million passengers daily.
- Satellite‑town development – new towns such as Epe, Ikorodu and Lekki‑Phase 1 with planned housing estates.
- Slum‑upgrading programmes – “Makoko Resettlement Project” providing concrete housing blocks and community centres.
- Zoning reforms (2021 Master Plan) – mixed‑use zones, green‑belt corridors and stricter building codes.
- Participatory budgeting – neighbourhood assemblies allocate a portion of the city budget to local projects.
8.5 Evaluation of Lagos’ management
- BRT: Travel times on some corridors have fallen by up to 40 %, but mixed‑traffic infiltration and limited feeder services reduce overall effectiveness.
- Satellite towns: Provide new housing stock, yet many commuters still travel long distances to the CBD, increasing regional congestion.
- Slum‑upgrading: Improves living conditions for thousands, but the pace is slow compared with the rate of new informal settlement formation.
- Zoning reforms: Offer a framework for sustainable growth, but enforcement is weak and illegal building continues.
- Participatory budgeting: Increases community ownership, yet limited financial resources restrict the scale of projects.
9. Simple model of the urbanisation process
Flow diagram (textual)
Rural push factors → Rural‑to‑urban migration (pull factors) → Urban population growth → Economic development & cultural opportunities → Urban problems (housing, transport, environment, inequality) → Management responses (zoning, transport, slum‑upgrading, satellite towns, participatory planning) → Feedback to urban growth (more or less attractive).
10. Key points to remember for the exam
- Urbanisation is both a driver and a result of economic development.
- Push‑pull factors interact: rural hardships push people out, urban attractions pull them in.
- Variations in global growth rates stem from differences in economic stage, demographic transition, government policy and infrastructure investment.
- Positive outcomes (growth, services, culture) can be outweighed by problems if planning is inadequate.
- Effective management requires a mix of strategies; each must be evaluated for sustainability, cost‑effectiveness and social equity.
- When answering exam questions, always:
- State the relevant data or trend.
- Explain the cause‑effect links clearly.
- Evaluate at least two management strategies, weighing strengths against limitations.