Population and Settlement – IGCSE/AS Geography
1.2 Migration: Identify and Explain Push‑ and Pull‑Factors (AO1)
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention of settling temporarily or permanently. It can be internal (within a country) or international (between countries). Understanding migration requires analysing the push factors that drive people away from their origin and the pull factors that attract them to a destination.
Key Definitions (AO1)
- Push factor: a condition in the place of origin that encourages people to leave.
- Pull factor: a condition in the destination that attracts people to move there.
- Net migration pressure: the overall balance of push and pull influences that determines the direction, scale and speed of migration.
6.3.1 Types of Migrants
- Economic migrant
- Moves mainly for better employment or higher wages. Example: Mexican workers moving to the United States for construction jobs.
- Refugee
- Flees a country because of a well‑founded fear of persecution, war or violence. Example: Syrian refugees arriving in Europe after 2011.
- Asylum‑seeker
- Claims protection in another country but whose refugee status has not yet been confirmed. Example: Rohingya people applying for asylum in Bangladesh.
- Internal migrant
- Moves within the same country (e.g., rural‑to‑urban migration in China).
- Return migrant
- Leaves a destination to go back to the country of origin, often after a period of work abroad.
6.3.2 Push‑ and Pull‑Factors
Push Factors (Origin)
- Economic hardship – high unemployment, low wages, lack of investment.
- Political instability – war, persecution, oppressive regimes.
- Environmental problems – drought, desertification, flooding, earthquakes.
- Social pressures – poor health services, inadequate education, overcrowding, high crime rates.
- Demographic pressure – rapid population growth outstripping resources.
Pull Factors (Destination)
- Better employment opportunities – higher wages, job vacancies, booming sectors.
- Political stability and safety – democratic governance, protection of human rights.
- Higher living standards – quality housing, reliable utilities, modern infrastructure.
- Education and health facilities – universities, specialised training, advanced hospitals.
- Family reunification – joining relatives who have already migrated.
- Favourable environment – milder climate, fertile land, lower exposure to natural hazards.
Comparison Table
| Push Factors (Origin) |
Pull Factors (Destination) |
| Unemployment or under‑employment |
Higher wages and abundant job vacancies |
| Political persecution or war |
Political stability, safety and respect for human rights |
| Environmental degradation (e.g., drought) |
Favourable climate and fertile agricultural land |
| Poor health and education services |
Advanced medical care and reputable universities |
| Overcrowding and inadequate housing |
Modern housing, good transport and infrastructure |
How Push and Pull Factors Interact
Migration rarely results from a single factor. A combination of push and pull influences creates a net migration pressure that determines the direction, scale and speed of movement. Example: a farmer facing drought (push) may relocate to a city where construction jobs are plentiful (pull) while also being attracted by better schools for his children.
6.3.3 Impacts of Migration (AO3)
On Migrants
- Economic: higher earnings, remittances to family, but risk of exploitation.
- Social: exposure to new cultures, possible discrimination, changes in family structure.
- Health: access to better medical services, but also risk of infectious‑disease spread.
On Origin (Sending) Countries
- Positive: remittances increase household income; skill acquisition if migrants return.
- Negative: brain‑drain, loss of labour force, ageing population, reduced tax base.
On Destination (Receiving) Countries
- Positive: fills labour shortages, contributes to economic growth, cultural diversity.
- Negative: pressure on housing, public services, possible social tension, competition for low‑skill jobs.
6.3.4 Management Strategies & Techniques (AO3)
- Policy and legislation – visa categories, quotas, work permits, asylum procedures.
- Border control and enforcement – patrols, biometric checks, detention centres.
- Integration programmes – language classes, cultural orientation, housing assistance.
- Return‑repatriation schemes – voluntary return incentives, assisted travel.
- International agreements – 1951 Refugee Convention, UN Global Compact for Migration.
- Sustainable‑development approaches – linking migration to SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) and SDG 8 (Decent Work).
6.3.5 Detailed Case‑Study Template (AO2 & AO3)
Complete the table with a recent migration flow. The structure helps you answer exam questions such as “Describe a migration flow, giving the push and pull factors, impacts and management strategies.”
| Aspect |
Details (to be completed) |
| Migration flow (origin → destination) |
e.g., Rural Kenya → Nairobi |
| Time period |
e.g., 2015‑2020 |
| Type of migrants |
Economic migrants (young adults seeking work) |
| Key push factors |
Land degradation, low agricultural wages, limited secondary education |
| Key pull factors |
Construction boom, higher wages, universities, better health services |
| Impacts on migrants |
Higher income, urban living costs, change in family dynamics |
| Impacts on origin |
Remittances, reduced labour for farming, ageing rural population |
| Impacts on destination |
Housing pressure, informal settlements, contribution to GDP |
| Management strategies used |
Urban‑planning policies, slum‑upgrading programmes, skills‑training schemes |
| Evaluation of strategies |
Effectiveness, sustainability, any unintended consequences |
6.3.6 Geographical Skills – Data & Graphical Work (AO2)
- Map work: interpret migration‑flow maps, draw arrows showing direction, calculate scale.
- Graphical representation: construct a bar chart of net migration rates for three countries; plot a line graph of remittance inflows over a decade.
- GIS / remote sensing: create a heat‑map of international migrant arrivals using UN data.
- Mathematical calculations:
- Migration rate = (Total migrants ÷ Mid‑year population) × 1 000.
- Net migration = (Immigrants − Emigrants) ÷ Mid‑year population × 1 000.
- Push‑pull index (simple example): PP = (Push score × Weight + Pull score × Weight) – useful for evaluating case‑study data.
- Fieldwork techniques: designing a questionnaire for recent migrants, conducting semi‑structured interviews, using observation checklists in reception centres.
Evaluation (AO3) Checklist
- What are the strengths and limitations of the data you have used (census vs. survey, UN vs. national statistics)?
- To what extent do the identified push and pull factors explain the migration flow?
- Are the impacts balanced – do you consider both positive and negative effects on all three groups (migrants, origin, destination)?
- How sustainable are the management strategies? Do they address the root causes of migration?
- Is there any bias in the sources (government reports, NGOs, media) that could affect your analysis?
Key Points for Revision (AO1‑AO3)
- Define migration and differentiate between internal and international migration.
- Identify at least three push factors and three pull factors; be ready to give real‑world examples.
- Explain how economic, political, environmental and social conditions can act as either push or pull factors, often simultaneously.
- Use the comparison table to contrast specific origin‑destination pairs.
- Describe the main impacts of migration on migrants, origin and destination countries.
- Recall at least three management strategies and be able to evaluate their effectiveness and sustainability.
- Complete the case‑study template with a recent flow, analyse factors, impacts and policies, then evaluate.
- Practice AO2 skills: calculate migration rates, draw flow maps, interpret graphs and GIS images.
- When answering exam questions, always consider the limitations of your data and the balance of pros and cons (AO3).
Suggested Diagram
Flow‑chart showing the relationship between push factors → decision to migrate → pull factors → migration → impacts (on migrants, origin, destination) → management strategies. Label each arrow and add brief examples to illustrate the links.
How This Topic Fits Within the IGCSE Geography Syllabus
- Paper 1 – Physical Geography: Rivers, Coasts, Ecosystems, Tectonic hazards, Climate change.
- Paper 2 – Human Geography (this unit): Changing towns & cities, Development, Changing economies, Resource provision, Population & Migration (the focus of these notes).
- Each unit requires knowledge (AO1), skills (AO2) and evaluation (AO3); the sections above provide a complete framework for the migration component.